Table Of Content

p_001_005_bp 17.10.2006 18:08 Uhr Seite 1 Failed Stone p_001_005_bp 17.10.2006 18:08 Uhr Seite 2 To my children: Galvin, Carly and Liam May the buildings that house you in the future benefit from the experience gained from buildings in the past. p_001_005_bp 17.10.2006 18:08 Uhr Seite 3 Patrick Loughran Failed Stone Problems and Solutions with Concrete and Masonry Birkhäuser – Publishers for Architecture Basel · Berlin · Boston p_001_005_bp 17.10.2006 18:08 Uhr Seite 4 We would like to thank the Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts for their generous support of this publication. “When I was a little boy….. I used to walk by the beach and move stones Just so there would be some residue of my existence, Some change in the world that resulted from my having been there.” Richard Solomon, 2002 speech Director of the Graham Foundation from 1993–2005 p_001_005_bp 17.10.2006 18:08 Uhr Seite 5 Table of Contents Preface 6 Thermal Hysteresis 10 Impact 22 Efflorescence 34 Surface Defects 48 Discoloration 70 Corrosion 92 Structure 108 Leakage 130 Acknowledgments 152 About the Author 153 Selected Bibliography 154 Index 156 Illustration Credits 159 p_006_009_preface_bp 17.10.2006 18:07 Uhr Seite 6 White marble buildings had become notorious failures that were being re-clad with metal and granite façades. I was shocked to find out that Finlandia Hall was re-clad with the same material that originally failed: thin white marble panels from Carrara. Incredibly, the photo on the cover is not of the original building, but of the replacement panels just a few years after installation. This architectural tragedy reminds me of a quote from George Santayana, an American philosopher and poet, “Those who cannot learn from history are doomed to repeat it.” The mission of Failed Stoneis to present knowledge from past projects in an effort to prevent the occurrence of future problems. Preface AsFalling Glassdescribed the limitations of 6 7 glass in façade design, Failed Stoneprovides In the spring of 2002, I wrote a book entitled a guide to better understanding concrete, Falling Glass: Problems and Solutions in masonry, and stone. By sharing the lessons Contemporary Architecture. The research for learned from great works like Finlandia Hall, Falling Glasshelped me understand how my hope is to enhance the art of building. glass failures could be avoided and enlight- I am fortunate to practice architecture in ened me as to which innovations were being Chicago, a city rich in architectural history. explored within the glass industry. Originally, Chicago’s great architectural past can come the book was to include the investigation of at a price. Turn-of-the-century buildings con- a variety of building materials. Ria Stein, the structed with corroding carbon steel connec- book’s editor, encouraged me to concentrate tions represent a hazard to pedestrians at the on glass with an offer to investigate other street level. Loose terra-cotta fragments have Terra-cotta blocks netted materials in future publications. Failed Stone fallen to the street requiring many of our walk- over to prevent from falling to represents a continuation of my research ways to be sheltered with protective scaffold- the streets, Mather Tower, on building materials, specifically concrete, ing. These older terra-cotta buildings are not Chicago, 1928. masonry, and stone. the only masonry element with problems. To the untrained eye, the cover photo of this More recent developments in masonry, such page 7 Concrete structure of Rhône-Alpes TGV Station book appears to be a wonderfully textured as the mortar additive “Sarabond”, have at the Lyon Airport, 1994. material creating a basket weave appearance. brought about catastrophic building corrosion To people familiar with façade design, the failures throughout the world. What at the image shows the stone cladding of a world- time seemed like an innovative new product renowned project, Finlandia Hall in Helsinki, turned out to be an admixture which has been designed by architect Alvar Aalto. The bowed blamed for brick walls falling off of the face panels were not part of the original design, of new buildings. Although I believe there are but the effect of thermal hysteresis on flat lessons to be learned regarding the use of new white marble from Carrara, Italy. The panels products on large-scale projects, my intention deformed to an un-repairable state just is not to discourage the pursuit of innovation. 10 years after completion of the project, On thecontrary,I hopeto encourageitthrough requiring the complete re-cladding of the shared information. entire building at a cost of more than 3 million euros. As I initially researched this project, As the subtitle suggests, this book is not all I had an understanding that the façade prob- about the problems, but also the solutions. lem had been repaired in a similar fashion The architectural community is on the cusp of to many other buildings throughout the world. breaking tradition with materials that have p_006_009_preface_bp 26.10.2006 18:31 Uhr Seite 7 p_006_009_preface_bp 26.10.2006 18:31 Uhr Seite 8 the creation of amazing structures like the Rhône-Alpes TGV station at the Lyon Airport; however, the collapsed precast panels at the Terminal 2E at the Charles de Gaulle Inter- national Airport in Paris are a sober reminder that concrete has limitations. Stone has traditionally been used in massive sections to enclose our churches allowing stain glass to bring light inside. Today modern cathedrals such as Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles use exposed colored concrete to form its thick walls and 11/ cm (5/ inch) 2 8 thick alabaster stone to bring light into the church. Ironically, these stone panels are protected on the outside by glass, reminding designers that as stone becomes thin, it right Alabaster window. also becomes weak. The E.N.S.A.D. – Ecole Cathedral of Our Lady of the 8 9 Angels, Los Angeles. Nationale Supérieure des Arts Décoratifs been used for centuries: concrete, stone, and façade shows the limitations of thin stone. masonry. Innovations with concrete in particu- The Paris school is composed of a translucent lar have pushed it to the forefront of architec- marble curtain wall. A fine layer of marble is tural design solutions. Today architects are laminated to the glass of a traditional curtain using concrete in revolutionary new ways. wall system. The fabrication of these glass Superplasticizers are added to mixtures to and stone units requires the exterior stone keep concrete fluid during pours. Fiber rein- surface to be polished down to a very thin forcement technology has abandoned the layer in order to improve light transmittance. limitations of steel rebar structures. The possi- The building’s stone appearance has been bilities of concrete seem endless. We photo- challenged by people throwing rocks from engrave our concrete to bring it to life. We add the street which penetrated the stone façade. copper aggregate to give it a natural green Other stone façades have followed the patina that changes with time. The industry E.N.S.A.D. project with the hope of resisting has even developed a concrete mix that is much more severe attacks. The Israeli Foreign above The translucent translucent to allow light into concrete spaces. Ministry Building provides a beautiful stone marble façade is prone to The use of modern concrete has allowed for façade designed to resist bombs. The façade vandalism and breakage. E.N.S.A.D. – Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Arts Décora- tifs, Paris. right Translucent stone façade allows light into the building. E.N.S.A.D., Paris, 1997 p_006_009_preface_bp 17.10.2006 18:07 Uhr Seite 9 has challenged that perception with masonry structures that are light and fluid. His buildings celebrate the ingenuity of a great design- er who was not limited by Uruguay’s construction materials or labor force. Similar to brick, the use of terra-cotta is experiencing a re-birth in modern architecture. Many architects had abandoned terra-cotta as an old fashion deco- rative element prone to corrosion problems in buildings from our past. Architects such as Goettsch Partners have given this traditional material a dynamic new life in modern architecture with terra-cotta panels designed to resist weather and corrosion. Part of the credit for these advances in concrete, stone, and masonry goes to new tech- nologies from the construction industry and part goes to the imaginations of the architectural community. This publication serves not only to educate architects, educators, and students on the principles of concrete, stone, and masonry design, but to foster the pursuit of new ideas within the construction industry. The projects discussed in this book were developed by some of the greatest architects of the 20thand 21stcenturies. They are innovative, creative designs. With any new creative endeavor comes the possibility of flaws and in some cases the possibility of “failed stone”. This book describes many of the problems behind today’s contemporary façade designs and offers possible measures designers can take to prevent problems. Each chapter of the book focuses on a particular mode of failure. The introduction of the chapter will discuss the fundamentals of the problem. Specific building examples will follow with explanations of how the type of failure can be detected. Terra-cotta panel façade, of the reception hall includes panels so thin The end of each chapter will conclude with designedbyGoettschPartners, that the wall lights up like a lantern at night. recommendations as to what could have been Hessel Museum, CCS Bard The onyx panels are more than beautiful. They done differently to eliminate or minimize the College, New York, 2006. have been designed with spring clip connec- risk of failure. tions tested for blast design. Today’s stone enclosures can provide both light and protec- While this is a book about failures, it is not tion to the inhabitants within. about liabilities, and the issue of whose fault these failures were remains deliberately un- Designers are transforming materials of the discussed. The intention was not to determine past like masonry into materials of the future. responsibilities for past mistakes but to help A traditional perception of brick is that of a avoid similar problems in the future. building tool used for heavy-looking buildings with straight lines. The work of Eladio Dieste