Explosive Effects and Applications PDF
Preview Explosive Effects and Applications
High-Pressure Shock Compression of Condensed Matter Editors-in-Chiej Lee Davison Yasuyuki Horie Editor-in-Chiej Emeritus Robert A. Graham Advisory Board Roger Cheret, France Vladimir E. Fortov, Russia Jing Fuqian, China Y.M. Gupta, USA James N. Johnson, USA Akira B. Sawaoka, Japan e c n e f e D ( ES ). Ra Dad of an courtesy Alberta, C oto at, hH here. Pdicine pe sM mi ed, T hfiel Nf u TS on nt O-tme Oh Ss f a abli n oEst natioarch oe etes DR Jonas A. Zukas William P. Walters Editors Explosive Effects and Applications With 160 Illustrations ~ Springer Jonas A. Zukas William P. Walters Computatîonal Mechanics Associates Army Research Laboralory P.O. Box 11314 Aberdeen Proving Ground Baltîmore, MO 21239 Aherdeen, MO 21005 USA USA Editors-in-Chief Yasuyuki Horic Lee Oavison 1..os Alamos National Laboratory 39 Canoncito Vista Road Las Alamos, NM 87545 Tijeras, NM 87059 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] Library of Congress Cataioging-in-PubJication Data Explosive effects and applications I edited by Jonas A. Z\lkas, William P. Walters. p. cm. - .( Higb prcssure sbock compression of coodensed ITI<ltter) Includes bibliographical referem:es. ISBN 978-0-387-95558-2 ISBN 978-1-4612-0589-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4612-0589-0 1. Blast cffca.. 2. Sbock waves. 3. Condenscd maltcr. 1. Zukas, Jonas A. II. Walters, W.P. (William P.), 1943- 111. Scries. TA 6S4.7.E9S 1997 662'.2-Ix:'21 97-5779 ISBN 978-0-387-95558-2 Printed on acid-fI'ec paper. CI 1998 Springer Science+8usiness M~dia N~w York Originally publishcd by Springer-Vertag New York in 1998 AII rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in wbole or in pan witboullbe wriuen pennission of Ihe publisber (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC). except for brief excerpts in con nection wilb reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in conneclion wilb any fono ofinfonnalion storage arni retrieval, electronic adaplation, compuler software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication oftrade names, lrademarks, service marks, and similar lenns, even ifthey are IlOt identified as such, is nOI 10 be taken as an expression of opinion as 10 whdher or IlOllhey are subjecllo proprietary rights. 9876543 springcronline..com Preface Our principal motivation in putting together this book, a project started in earnest in early 1996, was to have a book on energetic materials that was accessible to a newcomer to the field. To this end, we asked all contributors to emphasize basic principles and to provide a broad overview of their fields of specialization. In addition, we requested that they summarize the state of the art in their areas as well. By and large, we believe this goal has been met. At the time this book was started, many of the classic books dealing with energetic materials were either "out of stock" or "out of print." These are publishing industry jargon for "If you don't already have it, you're not going to get it from us." Left were but a handful of books for specialists in the field. Fortunately, many of the authors and contributors to these extinct classics were active as teachers and lecturers in university classrooms and short courses. Indeed, many of the chapters in this book had their origins as course notes for short courses dealing with detonation physics and explosive technology. All of this was good material, aimed at an audience assumed to have no prior experience with energetic materials, but buried in short course notes that are not readily accessible. They accepted enthusiastically the invitation to prepare chapters covering their work and generously share a lifetime of expertise with the reader. The book is divided into ten chapters. The first two provide a broad overview of the nature of explosives and their many applications. Most people consider explosives in a military context, and so will be surprised to find that the civilian use of explosives, particularly in rock blasting and demolitions, has always outweighed their use by the military. This has held true even in times of war. Since explosives release their energy over an extremely short period of time, the presence of shock waves is inevitable in all applications. This topic, as well as a description of explosive behavior under shock loading conditions, is considered in Chapter 3. Fundamentals of detonation theory are covered in Chapter 4 and the study of explosive initiation is continued in some detail in Chapter 6. Chapter 5 deals with the chemistry of explosives. In order to be useful in industry, the energy generated by an explosive, or explosive output, must be harnessed in a v vi Preface meaningful fashion. Chapter 7 covers one such application, the Gurney model, in great detail. Hazards and safety considerations are dealt with in Chapters 8 and 9. Chapter 10 considers one of many possible applications, the safe demolition of structures through the use of explosives. The astute reader will note some duplication between chapters. This is intentional. The editors felt that repetition of the basics from different points of view would be beneficial to understanding the subject matter and well worth the slight increase in the length of the book. The material in this book has been prepared to be readily accessible to anyone with a first degree in science or engineering. Familiarity with the fundamental principles of thermodynamics and organic chemistry that are typically presented at an undergraduate level is particularly helpful. All contributors to the book are internationally recognized experts in their respective fields. We thank them for the time they have taken to pre pare and preserve this material. We are also grateful to the many reviewers whose advice contributed to the quality of the book. This book is primarily meant for self-study by scientists and engineers who need an introduction to energetic materials and references for further study. With the addition of some supplemental material and class exercises, it can also serve as an advanced undergraduate or graduate text on explo sive effects. The Aberdeen Diner, where Bill Walters and I have spent more time than either of us care to remember, has as its motto: "If you like the food, tell your friends. If not, tell us." We encourage readers of the book to share their suggestions for improve ment. Comments such as "great book" or "this is the worst piece of trash I've ever read" are useful in that they convey minimal information on how the book has been received. We would urge you though, having been moved enough by the book to write in the first place, to be just a tad more specific. Praise is delightful, but a detailed description of the faults of the book is invaluable. If there are enough of them, there may even be a "new and improved" version of this book. After all, why should the manufacturers of detergents have all the fun! Baltimore, Maryland Jonas A. Zukas Aberdeen, Maryland William P. Walters Contents Preface ................................................................. v List of Editors and Contributors ....................................... xv CHAPTER I Introduction to Explosives 1 William C. Davis 1.1. History ............................................................ 1 1.2. Nomenclature ...................................................... 5 1.3. Blasting ............................................................ 6 1.4. Military Uses....................................................... 9 1.4.1. Blast Waves ................................................. 10 1.4.2. Fragm.ents .................................................... 13 1.5. Jet Penetrators ..................................................... 15 1.6. Reactive Armor .................................................... 16 1.7. Explosive Welding.................................................. 17 1.8. Wave Shaping and Lenses .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.9. Conclusions ........................................................ 20 1.10. Problems (Hints and Solutions) ...................................... 20 References ......................................................... 21 CHAPTER 2 Explosives Development and Fundamentals of Explosives Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Peter R. Lee 2.1. Introduction ........................................................ 23 2.2. Nomenclature ...................................................... 24 2.2.1. Units of Measurement ........................................ 24 2.2.2. Definitions of Physical, Chemical, and Materials Properties of Explosives ...................................... 26 2.3. The Nature of Explosions ........................................... 26 2.3.1. Physical Explosions .......................................... 26 2.3.2. Chemical Explosions ......................................... 27 2.3.3. Nuclear Explosions .......................................... 27 2.4. What Are Explosives? ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 vii Vl11 Contents 2.5. A Short History of Explosives ....................................... 29 2.5.1. Greek Fire........ ................................ ........... 29 2.5.2. Gunpowder, or Black Powder ................................ 29 2.5.3. Brief Chronology of the Discovery and Development of the Commoner High Explosives and Propellants .................. 30 2.5.3.1. Nitroglycerine ...................................... 30 2.5.3.2. Nitrocellulose ....................................... 33 2.5.3.3. Gun Propellant Developments ....................... 36 2.5.3.4. Picric Acid (2,4,6-Trinitrophenol) .................... 37 2.5.3.5. Tetryl (2,4,6-Trinitrophenylmethylnitramine) ......... 38 2.5.3.6. TNT (Trinitrotoluene) ............................... 39 2.5.3.7. RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine) ................ 40 2.5.3.8. HMX (Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine) ........... 41 2.5.3.9. PETN (Pentaerithrytoltetranitrate) ................... 41 2.5.3.10. HNS (Hexanitrostilbene) ............................ 41 2.5.3.11. TATB (Triaminotrinitrobenzene) .................... 42 2.5.3.12. HBN (Hexanitrobenzene) ............................ 42 2.5.3.13. Commercial Explosives .............................. 42 2.5.3.14. Future Explosives Development ..................... 43 CHAPTER 3 Shock Waves; Rarefaction Waves; Equations of State 47 William C. Davis 3.1. Introduction ........................................................ 47 3.2. Notation and Units ................................................. 48 3.3. List of Symbols ..................................................... 49 3.4. Shock Waves ....................................................... 50 3.5. Rarefaction Waves ................................................. 55 3.6. Reference Frames .................................................. 61 3.7. Sharp Shocks and Diffuse Rarefactions .............................. 63 3.8. Transmission and Reflection of Waves at Interfaces .................. 64 3.9. The Shock Tube.................................................... 72 3.10. Detonation ......................................................... 74 3.11. Phase Changes ..................................................... 77 3.12. Hydrodynamics and Thermodynamics ............................... 80 3.13. Equations of State .................................................. 82 3.13.1. Ideal Gas and Polytropic Gas .............................. 83 3.13.2. Abel ...................................................... 85 3.13.3. Inverse Power Potential .................................... 86 3.13.4. Expansion of Equations of State in Powers of v ............. 86 3.13.5. Tait ....................................................... 87 3.13.6. BKW ..................................................... 88 3.13.7. Intermolecular Potentials ................................... 88 3.13.8. JWL ...................................................... 89 3.13.9. Linear U-u ................................................ 91 3.13.10. Walsh Mirror Image ....................................... 93 3.13.11. Hayes ..................................................... 94 3.13.12. Davis ..................................................... 95 3.13.13. Williamsburg .............................................. 95 Contents IX 3.13.14. Summary .................................................. 96 3.14. Equations of State for Mixtures ..................................... 96 3.15. The Adiabatic Gamma, the Griineisen Gamma, and the Fundamental Derivative ......................................... 100 Hugoniot Curve Data [Fritz (1996b)] ................................ 105 3.16. Problems (Hints and Solutions) ..................................... 105 References ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 CHAPTER 4 Introduction to Detonation Physics 115 Paul W. Cooper 4.1. Nomenclature ...................................................... 115 4.2. The Simple Model .................................................. 116 4.3. The Jump Equations................................................ 119 4.4. The Detonation Product P-V Isentrope ............................. 120 4.5. Detonation Velocity and Density .................................... 121 4.6. The C-J State ...................................................... 127 4.7. The Detonation Product P-u Hugoniot .............................. 128 4.8. Detonation Velocity and Charge Diameter........................... 130 4.9. Conclusion ......................................................... 133 Bibliography ....................................................... 134 References ......................................................... 134 CHAPTER 5 The Chemistry of Explosives 137 Jimmie C. Oxley 5.1. Background ........................................................ 137 5.2. Conventional Explosives ............................................ 140 5.3. Nitrate Esters ...................................................... 141 5.3.1. Nitrate Ester Formulations ................................... 144 5.4. Nitroarenes ........................................................ 146 5.4.1. Thermally Stable Nitroarenes ................................. 151 5.5. Nitroalkanes ....................................................... 154 5.6. Nitramines ......................................................... 156 5.6.1. Nitramine Composites........................................ 159 5.7. Heterocyclic Explosives ............................................. 160 5.8. Energetic Salts ..................................................... 162 5.9. Composite Explosives............................................... 165 5.10. Liquid Oxidizers and Explosives ..................................... 166 5.11. Unconventional Explosives.......................................... 168 References ......................................................... 171 CHAPTER 6 Theories and Techniques of Initiation 173 Peter R. Lee 6.1. Introduction ........................................................ 173 6.2. Nomenclature ...................................................... 173
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