Exploring why individuals acquire the motivation to mitigate climate change

351 Pages·2010·2.49 MB·English

Exploring why individuals acquire

the motivation to

mitigate climate change

Sally Lampkin

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy at the University of East Anglia

Climatic Research Unit
School of Environmental Sciences
May 2010

© This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it
is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that no quotation
from the thesis, nor any information derived therefrom, may be published without the
author’s prior written consent.
ABSTRACT

Human motivation is a complex and multi-faceted aspect of individual behaviour. In
the context of climate change, people can be motivated to change their lifestyles
markedly to protect the planet and its resources, or seem not to care, or worry, how
they impact on the planet; the reasons behind this difference are poorly understood.

This study explores the internalised motivation to mitigate climate change, based on a
sample of adults who perceive that they are highly motivated to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions. An internal nature to a motivation produces long-term behavioural change
that is not reliant on external incentives, and provides a greater satisfaction for an
individual. The external rewards for taking action in the climate context are slow
coming and intangible so the internal nature, backed by external coercion, is critical in
responding to climate change. The three key aims of the research are to identify the
common characteristics of individuals with an internalised motivation, the defining
characteristics that predispose individuals to have a substantial internal nature and the
contributors to the development of internalised motivation. The research is based on
grounded theory, with the direction for each stage evolving from the results of the
preceding stage. A complementary combination of exploratory and non-exploratory
approaches and quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques is used.

The research draws on previous work on models of motivation, notably from the
fields of sociology and psychology. The findings confirm the validity of aspects of
these models, although the particular characteristics of the climate issue do result in a
shift of emphasis. It is found that there are five defining characteristics of individuals
who have internalised motivation. These defining characteristics are three ethics, a
sense of value, a sense of responsibility, a sense of belonging, and two capacities, an
ability to make connections and an ability to self-reflect on behaviour. A sense of
value, especially self-value, is the underlying contributor of internalised motivation
and the other four defining characteristics are driven primarily by a feeling of
competence, a strong family background, knowledge regarding the climate issue and
setting local and tangible goals to improve behaviour, respectively. The ability to
connect with nature in a sensual manner when visiting particular places in the natural
environment is unique to individuals who have internalised motivation. The return,
which is invariably the drive for human motivation, is not found to be fundamental in
this climate context. It is based on achieving short-term and local changes, and lessens
in importance once internalisation starts to take place.

From a policy viewpoint, developing a high level of motivation to reduce emissions in
a broader range of individuals requires encouraging, regular and sensual contact with
nature, nurturing the belief that individuals make a difference and, last but not least,
reasserting a values stance in society.
I dedicate this thesis to my three children, Pippa, Chris and Danny, who
are part of the future generations that will have to live with the impacts of
the actions, and inactions, of people today.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I wish to thank Dr Mick Kelly without whom this thesis would not
have been completed. He has listened, supported and guided at every turn with an
expertise that has given me the freedom to explore human motivation to mitigate
climate change in a way which has made most sense to me and, thus, enable me to
produce a piece of research of which I am very proud. I also wish to thank Dr Simon
Gerrard and Dr Emily Boyd who contributed valuable feedback at crucial times and
all the survey respondents and interviewees who so kindly gave their time to make
this research possible.

I wish to show immense gratitude to Mike Salmon in CRU, who definitely kept my
stress at a manageable level and showed never-ending patience when discussing any
IT problems with me, and to Mike Lampkin for his very useful advice on statistics.

Thanks must also go to the School of Environmental Science, University of East
Anglia who provided funding in the second and third years to enable me to continue
with full-time study.

My final thanks go to my three children, Pippa, Chris and Danny for their
understanding and acceptance of the hours I have spent in front of a computer, and to
five people whose support at various times throughout the last four and a half years
has been invaluable: Suzi Drew, Alison Sanders, Peter Varley, Anne Barker and Trish
Boyton.
CONTENTS

1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction 9
1.2 The challenge of climate change 10
1.2.1 The dimensions of climate change 12
1.3 Responding to climate change 15
1.3.1 Taking action 18
1.4 Goal of the research, key definitions and structure of the thesis 20

2 Research themes
2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 Perceptions of nature and society 27
2.2.1 Sustainable development and environmental concern 27
2.2.2 Feelings for green spaces 33
2.2.3 Environmental concern and behaviour 39
2.3 Factors that influence the actual-intention gap 44
2.3.1 Risk perception and trust 45
2.3.2 Responsibility, altruism and control 47
2.3.3 Habitual behaviour 52
2.4 The concept of individual motivation 55
2.4.1 The theory of motivation 55
2.4.2 Motivation in the climate context 60
2.5 Concluding remarks 64

3 Research framework and design
3.1 Introduction 66
3.2 The conceptual framework for the research 68
3.3 Research methodology and structure 72
3.4 Research design – phase one 83
3.4.1 Stage one: participant selection 84
3.4.2 Stage two: the email survey 86
3.4.3 Stage three: the in-depth interviews 91
3.5 Research design – phase two 95
3.5.1 Stage four: the survey for the motivated individuals 96
3.5.1.1Measures for the proposed defining characteristics 104
3.5.2 Stage five: the email survey 107
3.5.3 Stage six: the survey for the public group 109
3.6 Research design – phase three 111
3.6.1 Stage seven: the focused interviews 111
3.7 Analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data 113
3.8 Concluding remarks 118

4 The characteristics of individuals who have internalised motivation
4.1 Introduction 120
4.2 Results from the email survey 121
4.2.1 Results with consistent responses 124
4.2.2 Conclusions of the email survey 126
4.3 Results from the in-depth interviews 128
4.3.1 Perceptions of climate change 128
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4.3.2 An increase in motivation 138
4.4 The characteristic of the motivated individuals 140
4.5 Concluding remarks 142

5 Examining characteristics of individuals who have internalised motivation
5.1 Introduction 144
5.2 Act in a responsible manner 145
5.3 Linking actions and the consequences 152
5.4 Feel competent when undertaking activities 158
5.5 Feel a sense of independence in climate-related decisions and actions 161
5.6 Have strong social networks 166
5.7 Have all that is needed 172
5.8 Value things in life 178
5.9 Have regular contact with the natural environment 181
5.10 Reflect on and strive to improve one’s behaviour 184
5.11 Discussion 189
5.11.1 Interpreting results with Deci and Ryan’s (1985) model 191
5.12 Concluding remarks 196

6 Defining characteristics of the motivated individuals
6.1 Introduction 197
6.2 Demographic results 198
6.3 The defining characteristics 199
6.4 The ability to self-reflect on one’s behaviour 203
6.5 Concluding remarks 214

7 Contact with the natural environment
7.1 Introduction 215
7.2 Appreciation of the natural environment and the source of its value 216
7.3 The favourite types of natural environment 219
7.4 The frequency of contact and developing a place identity 223
7.5 Experiencing the favourite type of natural environment 229
7.6 Discussion 235
7.7 Concluding remarks 237

8 How the motivation to reduce carbon emissions develops
8.1 Introduction 239
8.2 The evidence of an increase in motivation 240
8.3 Personal circumstances at the time motivation developed 243
8.4 Trigger for the development of motivation 248
8.5 The development of internalised and habitual motivation 256
8.6 Individuals and society 259
8.7 Underlying contributor to the development of internalised motivation 263
8.8 Final interpretation of the research results 266
8.8.1 Applicability of Deci and Ryan’s (1985) model 266
8.9 Concluding remarks 269
9 Conclusions
9.1 Introduction 271
9.2 Research design 272
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9.3 Major findings 274
9.4 Limitations of the research and further research needs 278
9.5 Concluding remarks 282

References 284

Appendix A: Letters related to research 309

Appendix B: Email survey 312

Appendix C: Information sheet 316

Appendix D: Informed consent form for interview 317

Appendix E: Interview guides for in-depth interviews 318

Appendix F: Survey for the motivated individuals 324

Appendix G: Email survey for the motivated individuals 333

Appendix H: Covering letter for individuals in public group 336

Appendix J : Survey for the public group 337

Appendix K: Interview guide for focused interviews 346

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: The actual–intention gap and factors affecting it (adapted
from Silvia and Duval, 2001) 43

Figure 3.1: The six motivational states of the self-determination theory
developed by Deci and Ryan (1985) (adapted from Deci
and Ryan, 1985) 70

Figure 4.1: Examples of the coding techniques (open and axial) for
the category ‘Reflect on and strive to improve one’s own
behaviour’ 98

Figure 5.1: Examples from the interview analysis of how the characteristic
‘act in a responsible manner’ evolved 146
Figure 5.2: Examples from the interview analysis of how the characteristic
‘linking actions and the consequences’ evolved 153
Figure 5.3: Examples from the interview analysis of how the characteristic
‘feel competent when undertaking activities’ evolved 158
Figure 5.4: Examples from the interview analysis of how the characteristic
‘feel a sense of independence in climate-related decisions and
actions’ evolved 162
Figure 5.5: Examples from the interview analysis of how the characteristic
‘have strong social networks’ evolved 167
Figure 5.6: Examples from the interview analysis of how the characteristic
‘have all that is needed’ evolved 173
Figure 5.7: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, with the more primitive needs
at the base (adapted from Maslow, 1943, 1954) 175
Figure 5.8: Examples from the interview analysis of how the characteristic
‘value things in life’ evolved 179
Figure 5.9: Examples from the interview analysis of how the characteristic
‘have regular contact with the natural environment’ evolved 182
Figure 5.10: Examples from the interview analysis of how the characteristic
‘reflect on and strive to improve one’s behaviour’ evolved 185
Figure 5.11: Proposed mapping of the nine characteristics common to the
motivated individuals onto the five predisposing, or defining,
characteristics 192

Figure 7.1: The percentage distribution of the favourite type of natural
environment for the two samples 220
Figure 7.2: The percentage distribution of the frequency of visits to the
natural environment over three age periods for the two samples 224
Figure 7.3: The percentage of each sample that identify with a particular
place in the natural environment 227

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Figure 7.4: The percentage distribution for the feature of the favourite
type of natural environment which individuals in the two
samples consider to be most prominent 230
Figure 7.5: The percentage distribution for feelings experienced by
individuals in the two samples at their favourite place 233
Figure 7.6: Confirmed mapping of the common characteristic, have regular
contact with the natural environment, onto two of the defining
characteristics 237

Figure 8.1: The positive feedback between three elements: belonging,
freedom and well-being 246
Figure 8.2: A contextual model illustrating the impacts of triggers on the
development of internalised motivation 255
Figure 8.3: Confirmed mapping of the final two common characteristics, feel
a sense of independence and feel competent, onto the defining
characteristics 266

Figure 9.1: Confirmed mapping of the nine characteristics onto the five defining
characteristics, including the most influential aspects of each
defining characteristic in the context of climate change 275

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