Table Of ContentChristopher D. Lloyd
Exploring
Spatial Scale
in Geography
Exploring Spatial Scale in Geography
Exploring Spatial Scale
in Geography
Christopher D. Lloyd
Department of Geography and Planning,
School of Environmental Sciences,
University of Liverpool,
Liverpool, UK
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ForPhilipandDorothy
Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv
About the Companion Website xvii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Thepurposeofthebook 1
1.1.1 Whatthisbookadds 3
1.1.2 Scalesofanalysisandalternativedefinitions 3
1.2 Keyobjectives 4
1.3 Casestudiesandexamples 5
1.4 Whyisspatialscaleimportant? 5
1.5 Structureofthebook 6
1.6 Furtherreading 6
References 7
2 Scale in Spatial Data Analysis: Key Concepts 9
2.1 Definitionsofspatialscale 9
2.2 Spatialautocorrelationandspatialdependence 11
2.3 Scaledependence 13
2.4 Scaleanddatamodels 14
2.5 Spatialscalesofinquiry 14
2.6 Scaleandspatialdataanalysis 14
2.7 Scaleandneighbourhoods 15
2.8 Scaleandspace 16
2.9 Scale,spatialdataanalysisandphysicalprocesses 23
2.10 Scale,spatialdataanalysisandsocialprocesses 25
2.11 Summary 26
2.12 Furtherreading 26
References 26
3 The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem 29
3.1 Basicconcepts 29
viii CONTENTS
3.2 Scaleandzonationeffects 29
3.3 Theecologicalfallacy 32
3.4 TheMAUPandunivariatestatistics 34
3.4.1 Casestudy:segregationinNorthernIreland 35
3.4.2 Spatialapproachestosegregation 38
3.5 GeographicalweightingandtheMAUP 38
3.6 TheMAUPandmultivariatestatistics 39
3.6.1 Casestudy:populationvariablesinNorthernIreland 40
3.7 Zonedesign 41
3.8 Summary 42
3.9 Furtherreading 42
References 42
4 Measuring Spatial Structure 45
4.1 Basicconcepts 45
4.2 Measuresofspatialautocorrelation 45
4.2.1 Neighbourhoodsize 47
4.2.2 Spatialautocorrelationandkernelsize 47
4.2.3 Spatialautocorrelationandlags 50
4.2.4 Localmeasures 50
4.2.5 GlobalandlocalIandspatialscale 51
4.3 Geostatisticsandcharacterisingspatialstructure 53
4.3.1 Thetheoryofregionalisedvariables 54
4.4 Thevariogram 57
4.4.1 Biasinvariogramestimation 59
4.5 Thecovariancefunctionandcorrelogram 59
4.6 Alternativemeasuresofspatialstructure 60
4.7 Measuringdependencebetweenvariables 63
4.8 Variogramsofrisk 64
4.9 Variogramcloudsandh-scatterplots 64
4.10 Variogrammodels 65
4.11 Fittingvariogrammodels 68
4.12 Variogramcasestudy 70
4.13 Anisotropyandvariograms 74
4.13.1 Variogramsurfaces 74
4.13.2 Geometricandzonalanisotropy 75
4.14 Variogramsandnon-stationarity 77
4.14.1 Variogramsandlong-rangetrends 77
4.14.2 Variogramnon-stationarity 79
4.15 Space–timevariograms 82
4.16 Software 83
4.17 Othermethods 83
4.18 Pointpatternanalysis 84
4.18.1 Spatialdependenceandpointpatterns 85
4.18.2 LocalKfunction 91
4.18.3 CrossKfunction 92
