Table Of ContentF O U R T H E D I T I O N
Exploring Lifespan
Development
Laura E. Berk
Illinois State University
Dedication
To David, Peter, and Melissa, with love
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Berk, Laura E., author.
Title: Exploring lifespan development / Laura E. Berk, Illinois State
University.
Description: Fourth Edition. | Boston : Pearson, [2018] | Revised edition of
the author’s Exploring lifespan development, 2014. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017013903| ISBN 9780134419701 | ISBN 0134419707 |
ISBN 9780134420714 | ISBN 0134420675 | ISBN 9780134420677
Student Edition
Subjects: LCSH: Developmental psychology--Textbooks.
ISBN 10: 0-13-441970-7
Classification: LCC BF713 .B466 2017 | DDC 155--dc23
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-441970-1
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017013903
Instructor’s Review Edition
ISBN 10: 0-13-442071-3
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-442071-4
À la Carte Edition
ISBN 10: 0-13-442067-5
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-442067-7
About
the Author
Laura E. Berk is a distinguished professor of psychol-
ogy at Illinois State University, where she has taught child,
adolescent, and lifespan development for more than three
decades. She received her bachelor’s degree in psychology
from the University of California, Berkeley, and her mas-
ter’s and doctoral degrees in child development and educa-
tional psychology from the University of Chicago. She has been a visiting scholar at Cornell
University, UCLA, Stanford University, and the University of South Australia.
Berk has published widely on the effects of school environments on children’s devel-
opment, the development of private speech, and the role of make-believe play in develop-
ment. Her empirical studies have attracted the attention of the general public, leading
to contributions to Psychology Today and Scientific American. She has also been featured
on National Public Radio’s Morning Edition and in Parents Magazine, Wondertime, and
Reader’s Digest.
Berk has served as a research editor of Young Children, a consulting editor for Early
Childhood Research Quarterly, and as an associate editor of the Journal of Cognitive
Education and Psychology. She is a frequent contributor to edited volumes, having written
the article on social development for The Child: An Encyclopedic Companion and the
article on Vygotsky for The Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science. She is coauthor of the chap-
ter on make-believe play and self-regulation in the Sage Handbook of Play in Early Child-
hood and the chapter on psychologists writing textbooks in Career Paths in Psychology:
Where Your Degree Can Take You, published by the American Psychological Association.
Berk’s books include Private Speech: From Social Interaction to Self-Regulation;
Scaffolding Children’s Learning: Vygotsky and Early Childhood Education; Landscapes
of Development: An Anthology of Readings; and A Mandate for Playful Learning in Pre-
school: Presenting the Evidence. In addition to Exploring Lifespan Development, she is
author of the best-selling texts Development Through the Lifespan, Child Development, and
Infants, Children, and Adolescents, published by Pearson. Her book for parents and t eachers
is Awakening Children’s Minds: How Parents and Teachers Can Make a Difference.
Berk is active in work for children’s causes. She serves on the governing boards of
the Illinois Network of Child Care Resource and Referral Agencies and of Artolution, an
organization devoted to engaging children, youths, and families in collaborative public art
projects around the world as a means of promoting resilience and relief from trauma. Berk
has been designated a YWCA Woman of Distinction for service in education. She is a fel-
low of the American Psychological Association, Division 7: Developmental Psychology.
Features at a Glance
SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH CULTURAL INFLUENCES
The Pros and Cons of Reproductive Technologies 42 The Baby Boomers Reshape the Life Course 10
The Nurse–Family Partnership: Reducing Maternal Stress and Immigrant Youths: Adapting to a New Land 26
Enhancing Child Development Through Social Support 73 Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping Arrangements 99
A Cross-National Perspective on Health Care and Other Policies for Social Origins of Make-Believe Play 134
Parents and Newborn Babies 82 Why Are Children from Asian Cultures Advanced in Drawing
Does Child Care in Infancy Threaten Attachment Security and Later Skills? 179
Adjustment? 161 Children in Village and Tribal Cultures Observe and Participate in
Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youths: Coming Out to Oneself and Adult Work 188
Others 310 Ethnic Differences in the Consequences of Physical Punishment 215
Childhood Attachment Patterns and Adult Romantic The Flynn Effect: Massive Generational Gains in IQ 254
Relationships 390 Impact of Ethnic and Political Violence on Children 289
Partner Abuse 397 Identity Development Among Ethnic Minority Adolescents 333
The Silver Lining in Life’s Adversities 425 Is Emerging Adulthood Really a Distinct Stage of Development? 385
Grandparents Rearing Grandchildren: The Skipped-Generation Cultural Variations in Mourning Behavior 539
Family 447
Interventions for Caregivers of Older Adults with Dementia 477 APPLYING WHAT WE KNOW
Elder Suicide 497
Do’s and Don’ts for a Healthy Pregnancy 74
Reasons to Breastfeed 101
SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION
Signs of Developmentally Appropriate Infant and Toddler Child
Baby Learning from TV and Video: The Video Deficit Effect 126 Care 137
Magnet Schools: Equal Access to High-Quality Education 262 Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Self-Control 165
Media Multitasking Disrupts Learning 323 Signs of Developmentally Appropriate Early Childhood
How Important Is Academic Engagement in College for Successful Programs 198
Transition to the Labor Market? 374 Positive Parenting 217
Signs of High-Quality Education in Elementary School 259
BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Helping Children Adjust to Their Parents’ Divorce 286
Handling Consequences of Teenagers’ New Cognitive
Resilience 8 Capacities 319
The Tutsi Genocide and Epigenetic Transmission of Maternal Stress Supporting Healthy Identity Development 334
to Children 57 Preventing Sexual Coercion 369
The Mysterious Tragedy of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 85 Resources That Foster Resilience in Emerging Adulthood 384
“Tuning In” to Familiar Speech, Faces, and Music: A Sensitive Period Strategies That Help Dual-Earner Couples Combine Work and Family
for Culture-Specific Learning 111 Roles 407
Infantile Amnesia 130 Managing Stress 422
Parental Depression and Child Development 149 Relieving the Stress of Caring for an Aging Parent 450
Development of Shyness and Sociability 153 Increasing the Effectiveness of Educational Experiences for Older
Autism and Theory of Mind 193 Adults 486
Transgender Children 224 Fostering Adaptation to Widowhood in Late Adulthood 507
Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 246 Suggestions for Resolving Grief After a Loved One Dies 538
Bullies and Their Victims 280
Two Routes to Adolescent Delinquency 349
Telomere Length: A Marker of the Impact of Life Circumstances on
Biological Aging 357
Anti-Aging Effects of Dietary Calorie Restriction 416
What Factors Promote Psychological Well-Being in Midlife? 441
What Can We Learn About Aging from Centenarians? 462
Experience Corps: Promoting Retired Adults’ Physical and Mental
Health and Children’s Academic Success 514
Music as Palliative Care for Dying Patients 530
iv
Contents
A Personal Note to Students xiii PA R T I I
Preface for Instructors xiv
FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT
PA R T I
c h a p t e r 2
THEORY AND RESEARCH IN
Genetic and Environmental
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Foundations 35
c h a p t e r 1 Genetic Foundations 36
The Genetic Code 36
History, Theory, and Research The Sex Cells 37
Strategies 1 Boy or Girl? 37
Multiple Offspring 37
Patterns of Gene–Gene Interactions 38
A Scientific, Applied, and Interdisciplinary Field 3
Chromosomal Abnormalities 40
Basic Issues 3
Reproductive Choices 41
Continuous or Discontinuous Development? 4
Genetic Counseling and Prenatal Diagnosis 41
One Course of Development or Many? 4
Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture? 5 ■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Pros and Cons of Reproductive
Technologies 42
The Lifespan Perspective: A Balanced Point of View 5
Adoption 44
Development Is Lifelong 5
Development Is Multidimensional and Multidirectional 6 Environmental Contexts for Development 45
Development Is Plastic 6 The Family 45
Development Is Influenced by Multiple, Interacting Forces 7 Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning 47
Poverty 47
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Resilience 8
Affluence 48
Scientific Beginnings 9
Beyond the Family: Neighborhoods and Schools 48
Darwin: Forefather of Scientific Child Study 9 The Cultural Context 50
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES The Baby Boomers Reshape the Life Understanding the Relationship Between Heredity and
Course 10
Environment 53
The Normative Period 11 The Question, “How Much?” 53
The Mental Testing Movement 11 The Question, “How?” 54
Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories 11 ■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT The Tutsi Genocide and Epigenetic
The Psychoanalytic Perspective 11 Transmission of Maternal Stress to Children 57
Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory 13 Summary 58
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 14
Important Terms and Concepts 59
Recent Theoretical Perspectives 16
Information Processing 16
c h a p t e r 3
Developmental Neuroscience 17
Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology 17
Prenatal Development, Birth,
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 18
and the Newborn Baby 60
Ecological Systems Theory 19
Comparing Theories 21
Prenatal Development 61
Studying Development 21 Conception 61
Common Research Methods 21 Germinal Period 62
General Research Designs 25 Period of the Embryo 63
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Immigrant Youths: Adapting to a New Period of the Fetus 64
Land 26 Prenatal Environmental Influences 66
Designs for Studying Development 28 Teratogens 66
Other Maternal Factors 71
Ethics in Lifespan Research 31
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Nurse–Family Partnership:
Summary 32 Reducing Maternal Stress and Enhancing Child Development Through
Important Terms and Concepts 34 Social Support 73
The Importance of Prenatal Health Care 73
v
vi Contents
Childbirth 75 Learning Capacities 103
The Stages of Childbirth 75 Classical Conditioning 103
The Baby’s Adaptation to Labor and Delivery 76 Operant Conditioning 103
Assessing the Newborn’s Physical Condition: The Apgar Scale 76 Habituation 104
Imitation 104
Approaches to Childbirth 77
Natural, or Prepared, Childbirth 77 Motor Development 106
Home Delivery 77 The Sequence of Motor Development 106
Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems 106
Medical Interventions 78
Fine-Motor Development: Reaching and Grasping 108
Fetal Monitoring 78
Labor and Delivery Medication 78 Perceptual Development 109
Cesarean Delivery 79 Hearing 109
Vision 110
Preterm and Low-Birth-Weight Infants 79
Preterm versus Small-for-Date Infants 79 ■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT “Tuning In” to Familiar
Consequences for Caregiving 79 Speech, Faces, and Music: A Sensitive Period for Culture-Specific
Interventions for Preterm Infants 80 Learning 111
Intermodal Perception 114
The Newborn Baby’s Capacities 81
Understanding Perceptual Development 115
Reflexes 81
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH A Cross-National Perspective on Health Summary 116
Care and Other Policies for Parents and Newborn Babies 82 Important Terms and Concepts 117
States of Arousal 83
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT The Mysterious Tragedy of c h a p t e r 5
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 85
Sensory Capacities 86 Cognitive Development in Infancy
Adjusting to the New Family Unit 88 and Toddlerhood 118
Summary 89
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 119
Important Terms and Concepts 90 Piaget’s Ideas About Cognitive Change 119
The Sensorimotor Stage 120
Follow-Up Research on Infant Cognitive Development 122
PA R T I I I Evaluation of the Sensorimotor Stage 125
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Baby Learning from TV and Video:
INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD: The Video Deficit Effect 126
THE FIRST TWO YEARS Information Processing 127
A General Model of Information Processing 127
Attention 129
c h a p t e r 4
Memory 129
Categorization 130
Physical Development in Infancy
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Infantile Amnesia 130
and Toddlerhood 91
Evaluation of Information-Processing Findings 132
Body Growth 92 The Social Context of Early Cognitive Development 132
Changes in Body Size and Muscle–Fat Makeup 92 Individual Differences in Early Mental Development 133
Changes in Body Proportions 92 Infant and Toddler Intelligence Tests 134
Individual and Group Differences 92
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Social Origins of Make-Believe Play 134
Brain Development 93
Early Environment and Mental Development 135
Development of Neurons 94
Early Intervention for At-Risk Infants and Toddlers 138
Measures of Brain Functioning 94
Development of the Cerebral Cortex 96 Language Development 139
Sensitive Periods in Brain Development 97 Theories of Language Development 139
Changing States of Arousal 98 Getting Ready to Talk 140
First Words 141
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping
The Two-Word Utterance Phase 141
Arrangements 99
Individual Differences 141
Influences on Early Physical Growth 100 Supporting Early Language Development 142
Heredity 100
Summary 143
Nutrition 100
Malnutrition 102 Important Terms and Concepts 144
Contents vii
c h a p t e r 6 Influences on Physical Growth and Health 174
Heredity and Hormones 174
Emotional and Social Development Nutrition 174
in Infancy and Toddlerhood 145 Infectious Disease 175
Childhood Injuries 176
Erikson’s Theory of Infant and Toddler Personality 146 Motor Development 177
Basic Trust versus Mistrust 146 Gross-Motor Development 177
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt 146 Fine-Motor Development 177
Emotional Development 147 Individual Differences in Motor Skills 178
Basic Emotions 147 ■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Why Are Children from Asian Cultures
Understanding and Responding to the Emotions of Others 148 Advanced in Drawing Skills? 179
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Parental Depression and Child
Development 149 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 180
Emergence of Self-Conscious Emotions 150 Piaget’s Theory: The Preoperational Stage 180
Beginnings of Emotional Self-Regulation 150 Advances in Mental Representation 180
Temperament and Development 151 Make-Believe Play 180
The Structure of Temperament 151 Symbol–Real-World Relations 181
Measuring Temperament 152 Limitations of Preoperational Thought 182
Stability of Temperament 152 Follow-Up Research on Preoperational Thought 183
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Development of Shyness and Evaluation of the Preoperational Stage 185
Sociability 153 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 186
Genetic and Environmental Influences 154 Private Speech 186
Temperament and Child Rearing: The Goodness-of-Fit Model 155 Social Origins of Early Childhood Cognition 187
Development of Attachment 155 Vygotsky’s View of Make Believe Play 187
Bowlby’s Ethological Theory 156 Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory 187
Measuring the Security of Attachment 157 ■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Children in Village and Tribal Cultures
Stability of Attachment 158 Observe and Participate in Adult Work 188
Cultural Variations 158
Information Processing 189
Factors That Affect Attachment Security 158
Executive Function 189
Multiple Attachments 160
Memory 190
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Does Child Care in Infancy Threaten
The Young Child’s Theory of Mind 192
Attachment Security and Later Adjustment? 161
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Autism and Theory of Mind 193
Attachment and Later Development 162
Self-Development 163 Early Childhood Literacy 194
Early Childhood Mathematical Reasoning 194
Self-Awareness 163
Categorizing the Self 164 Individual Differences in Mental Development 195
Self-Control 164 Home Environment and Mental Development 195
Summary 166 Preschool, Kindergarten, and Child Care 196
Educational Media 197
Important Terms and Concepts 167
Language Development 199
MILESTONES Development in Infancy and
Vocabulary 199
Toddlerhood 168 Grammar 200
Conversation 201
Supporting Language Development in Early Childhood 201
PA R T I V
Summary 202
EARLY CHILDHOOD:
Important Terms and Concepts 204
TWO TO SIX YEARS
c h a p t e r 8
c h a p t e r 7
Emotional and Social Development
Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood 205
in Early Childhood 170
Erikson’s Theory: Initiative versus Guilt 206
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 171 Self-Understanding 207
A Changing Body and Brain 171 Foundations of Self-Concept 207
Skeletal Growth 171 Emergence of Self-Esteem 207
Brain Development 171
viii Contents
Emotional Development 208 Shadows of Our Evolutionary Past 241
Understanding Emotion 208 Physical Education 241
Emotional Self-Regulation 208
Self-Conscious Emotions 209 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 242
Empathy and Sympathy 209 Piaget’s Theory: The Concrete Operational Stage 242
Peer Relations 210 Concrete Operational Thought 242
Limitations of Concrete Operational Thought 243
Advances in Peer Sociability 210
Follow-Up Research on Concrete Operational Thought 243
First Friendships 211
Peer Relations and School Readiness 212 Information Processing 245
Parental Influences on Early Peer Relations 212 Executive Function 245
Foundations of Morality and Aggression 213 ■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Children with Attention-Deficit
The Psychoanalytic Perspective 213 Hyperactivity Disorder 246
Social Learning Theory 214 Memory Strategies 247
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Ethnic Differences in the Consequences Knowledge and Memory 248
of Physical Punishment 215 Culture and Memory Strategies 248
The School-Age Child’s Theory of Mind 248
The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective 216
Cognitive Self-Regulation 249
The Other Side of Morality: Development of Aggression 217
Applications of Information Processing to Academic Learning 249
Gender Typing 220
Individual Differences in Mental Development 250
Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs and Behavior 220
Defining and Measuring Intelligence 250
Biological Influences on Gender Typing 221
Other Efforts to Define Intelligence 251
Environmental Influences on Gender Typing 221
Explaining Individual and Group Differences in IQ 53
Gender Identity 222
Reducing Gender Stereotyping in Young Children 223 ■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES The Flynn Effect: Massive Generational
Gains in IQ 254
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Transgender Children 224
Language Development 256
Child Rearing and Emotional and Social Development 225
Vocabulary and Grammar 257
Styles of Child Rearing 225
Pragmatics 257
What Makes Authoritative Child Rearing Effective? 226
Learning Two Languages 258
Cultural Variations 227
Child Maltreatment 227 Learning in School 259
Educational Philosophies 259
Summary 230
Teacher–Student Interaction and Grouping Practices 260
Important Terms and Concepts 231 Teaching Children with Special Needs 261
MILESTONES Development in Early Childhood 232 ■ SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Magnet Schools: Equal Access to
High-Quality Education 262
How Well Educated Are U.S. Children? 263
PA R T V
Summary 265
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD: Important Terms and Concepts 267
SIX TO ELEVEN YEARS
c h a p t e r 1 0
c h a p t e r 9 Emotional and Social Development
in Middle Childhood 268
Physical and Cognitive Development
in Middle Childhood 234 Erikson’s Theory: Industry versus Inferiority 269
Self-Understanding 269
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 235
Self-Concept 269
Body Growth 235 Self-Esteem 270
Health Issues 235 Influences on Self-Esteem 270
Nutrition 236 Emotional Development 273
Overweight and Obesity 236 Self-Conscious Emotions 273
Illnesses 238 Emotional Understanding 274
Motor Development and Play 239 Emotional Self-Regulation 274
Gross-Motor Development 239 Moral Development 274
Fine-Motor Development 239 Moral and Social-Conventional Understanding 275
Sex Differences 239 Understanding Individual Rights 275
Games with Rules 240 Understanding Diversity and Inequality 276
Contents ix
Peer Relations 277 Sexually Transmitted Infections 311
Peer Groups 277 Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenthood 311
Friendships 278 Substance Use and Abuse 313
Peer Acceptance 279
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 314
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Bullies and Their Victims 280
Piaget’s Theory: The Formal Operational Stage 315
Gender Typing 281
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning 315
Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs 281
Propositional Thought 315
Gender Identity and Behavior 281
Follow-Up Research on Formal Operational Thought 316
Family Influences 282
An Information-Processing View of Adolescent Cognitive
Parent–Child Relationships 283
Development 317
Siblings 283
Scientific Reasoning: Coordinating Theory with Evidence 317
Only Children 283
How Scientific Reasoning Develops 318
Divorce 284
Blended Families 286 Consequences of Adolescent Cognitive Changes 318
Maternal Employment and Dual-Earner Families 287 Self-Consciousness and Self-Focusing 318
Idealism and Criticism 319
Some Common Problems of Development 288
Decision Making 319
Fears and Anxieties 288
Learning in School 320
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Impact of Ethnic and Political Violence
School Transitions 320
on Children 289
Academic Achievement 321
Child Sexual Abuse 290
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Media Multitasking Disrupts
Fostering Resilience in Middle Childhood 290
Learning 323
Summary 291
Dropping Out 324
Important Terms and Concepts 293
Summary 325
MILESTONES Development in Middle Childhood 294 Important Terms and Concepts 327
c h a p t e r 1 2
PA R T V I
Emotional and Social Development
ADOLESCENCE:
in Adolescence 328
THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD
Erikson’s Theory: Identity versus Role Confusion 329
c h a p t e r 1 1 Self-Understanding 330
Changes in Self-Concept 330
Physical and Cognitive Development Changes in Self-Esteem 330
in Adolescence 296 Paths to Identity 331
Identity Status and Psychological Well-Being 331
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 297 Influences on Identity Development 332
Conceptions of Adolescence 297 ■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Identity Development Among Ethnic
Minority Adolescents 333
Puberty: The Physical Transition to Adulthood 298
Moral Development 334
Hormonal Changes 298
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 334
Body Growth 298
Are There Sex Differences in Moral Reasoning? 336
Motor Development and Physical Activity 299
Coordinating Moral, Social-Conventional, and Personal
Sexual Maturation 300
Concerns 336
Individual Differences in Pubertal Growth 300
Influences on Moral Reasoning 337
Brain Development 302
Moral Reasoning and Behavior 338
The Psychological Impact of Pubertal Events 303 Religious Involvement and Moral Development 338
Reactions to Pubertal Changes 303 Further Challenges to Kohlberg’s Theory 339
Pubertal Change, Emotion, and Social Behavior 304
The Family 340
Pubertal Timing 304
Parent–Adolescent Relationships 340
Health Issues 306 Family Circumstances 341
Nutritional Needs 306 Siblings 341
Eating Disorders 306
Peer Relations 342
Sexuality 307
Friendships 342
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youths: Cliques and Crowds 344
Coming Out to Oneself and Others 310
Dating 345
