Evacuation and Relocation of Persons of Japanese Ancestry During World War II: A Historical Study of the Manzanar War Relocation Center: Historic Resource Study, Special History Study, Volume One

502 Pages·1996·38.2 MB·English

by  Unrau, Harlan

I 2 938/3: M 31/V.l
THE EVACUATION AND RELOCATION OF PERSONS OF JAPANESE ANCESTRY
DURING WORLD WAR II: A HISTORICAL STUDY
_ TmpmTS of the manzanar war relocation center
PDEP&?TORY ITEM [ Historic Resource Study / S pecial History Study, Volume One
MAR 2 6 1997
. CLEMSON
LIBRARY
MANZANAR
National Historic Site • California
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Cover Photo: Entrance to Manzanar, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center, Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and
Photographs Division, Library of Congress
Hin Printed on Recycled Paper
THE EVACUATION AND RELOCATION OF PERSONS OF JAPANESE ANCESTRY
DURING WORLD WAR II: A HISTORICAL STUDY
OF THE MANZANAR WAR RELOCATION CENTER
Historic Resource Study / Special History Study, Volume One
By Harlan D. Unrau
MANZANAR
National Historic Site • California
United States Department of the Interior • National Park Service
1996
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2012 with funding from
LYRASIS Members and Sloan Foundation
http://archive.org/details/evacuationrelocaOOunra
CONTENTS
Preface xxiii
Introduction xxv
Establishment xxv
Geographic Location xxv
Purpose xxv
Significance/ Background xxv
Historical Abstract — Significance of Manzanar War Relocation Center xxix
Chapter One: Historical Development of the Anti-Asian Tradition in the Western
United States 1
The Chinese 1
The Japanese 2
Chapter Two: Exclusion of Persons of Japanese Ancestry from the West Coast of the
United States — Historic Context for Executive Order 9066 11
Background of Exclusion and Evacuation Planning 12
Decision for Mass Evacuation 23
Mass Evacuation of Japanese in Perspective 32
Chapter Three: Evacuation of Persons of Japanese Ancestry from the West Coast of
the United States — Implementation of Executive Order 9066 37
Congressional Acts 38
Initial Proclamations to Implement the Executive Order 42
Voluntary Evacuation 44
Establishment of the War Relocation Authority and the Wartime Civil Control
Administration 47
Assembly Center Selection 50
Terminal Island Evacuation 52
Initial Evacuation to Manzanar 53
Commencement of Mandatory Evacuation: Evacuation of Bainbridge Island 54
Evacuees' Property Disposal 58
Second Stage of Evacuation 64
Completion of Evacuation 66
Treatment of German and Italian Aliens 66
Chapter Four: Assembly Centers under the Administration of the Wartime Civil
Control Administration 69
Assembly Centers 69
Construction and Facilities 70
Administration 72
Security 74
Evacuee Experiences 76
Transfer to Assembly Centers 76
Housing and Facilities 78
Family Separation 80
in
CONTENTS
Dehydration Plant 258
Rice Malt Room 259
Men's Latrine in Block 15 259
Duck Boards for Food Warehouses 259
Garbage Can Wash Rack 259
Hospital Incinerator 259
Utility Extension Construction 260
Staff Housing 260
Poultry and Hog Farms 260
Garage 261
Well 169 261
Reservoir Enlargement 261
Recreational Facility Construction 261
Remodeling Construction 263
Warehouse Reflooring 263
Interior Lining of Partitions in Evacuee Buildings 264
Relocation and Records Offices 265
Electrical and Plumbing Use of Warehouse 5 265
Hospital 265
Schools 266
Mattress Factory in Warehouse 25 267
Community Hostel 267
Warehouse 36 268
Appointed Personnel Recreation Building 268
Canteen and General Store 268
Motor Pool Office 269
Administration Building 269
Butcher Shop 270
Shoyu Factory 270
Equipment Shed 4 270
Evacuee Post Office 270
Engineering Office 270
Police Station 271
Conversion of Camouflage Factory Buildings 271
Warehouse 31 271
Guayule Lath House 271
Refrigeration 272
Land Improvements 273
Clearing and Developing 273
Irrigation and Drainage 273
Streets and Roads 274
Bridges 275
Fencing 275
Landscaping, Gardens, Parks, and Picnic Areas 276
Cemetery 279
Chapter Nine: Historical Background of the Evacuee Population at the Manzanar War
Relocation Center 293
Japanese /Japanese American Communities of Origin 293
VI
Contents
Historical Development of Japanese/Japanese American Communities of Evacuee
Origin 296
California 296
Settlement Patterns and Occupational Characteristics 296
Community Structure 301
Los Angeles County 303
1869-1 930s 303
1940 310
Urban Settlement: Distribution 310
Urban Settlement: Occupational Structure 311
Rural Settlement 315
Summary: Pre-World War II Economic Trends in Los Angeles
County Japanese/Japanese American Community 317
Divisions in Japanese/Japanese American Communities of Evacuee Origin 318
Three Major Groups — Issei, Nisei, Kibei 318
Issei 318
Nisei 320
Kibei 322
Political Divisions 323
Conservatism and Pro-Americanism as Represented by the Japanese
American Citizens League (JACL) 323
Leftist Anti-Fascism as Represented by Communist-Affiliated Labor
Organizations 329
Prewar Japanese/Japanese American Communities and Evacuation Experiences of
Manzanar Evacuee Population 3312
Terminal Island 3323
Little Tokyo — East Los Angeles 33940
West Los Angeles 3456
Venice 3467
Pasadena 351
Burba nk 352
San Fernando Valley 355
Florin 361
Stockton/ French Camp Area of San Joaquin County 365
Bainbridge Island 371
Chapter Ten: Operation of Manzanar War Relocation Center — March- December 1942
375
Manzanar under the WCCA 375
Organizational Structure 375
Status of Center Operations on June 1 376
Manzanar under the WRA 381
Organizational Structure 381
Appointed Personnel 383
New Manzanar Administrator 384
Policies of Project Director Nash 385
Deteriorating Morale and Public Relations at Manzanar 386
Manzanar Camp Operations during 1942 390
Reports Division 390
vn
CONTENTS
Chapter Eleven: Violence at Manzanar on December 6, 1942 — An Examination of the
Event, Its Underlying Causes, and Historical Interpretation 477
477
History 477
Events of December 5-6, 1942 477
Assault on Fred Tayama 477
Arrest of Harry Y.Ueno 479
Sunday Morning Meeting 480
Sunday 1:00 p.m. Mass Meeting 480
Merritt's Interaction with Evacuee Crowd 481
Merritt's Agreement with the Committee of Five 481
Dispersal of Crowd 482
Ueno's Return to Manzanar 483
Sunday Evening Mass Meeting 483
Hospital Incident 484
Police Station Incident 485
Casualties 487
Aftermath 489
Arrests 489
Protective Custody for Evacuees Whose Lives Were Threatened 491
Additional Military Assistance 493
Maintenance of Essential Center Services 494
Schools 494
Funerals/Memorial Services 495
Negotiations Between Evacuee Committees and WRA Administrators
495
Christmas Day 498
Causes 499
WRA Investigations 499
Togo Tanaka, January 25, 1943 502
Evacuee Perspectives as Documented by the Community Analysis Section
506
Robert L. Brown and Ralph P. Merritt, Final Report, Manzanar, 1946 512
Joseph Kurihara Statement in March 1944 and Merritt Interview with
Kurihara, November 12, 1945 517
Military and Congressional Investigations 519
Historical Perspectives 521
WRA-JACL Perspective 521
Ethnic Perspective 521
Chapter Twelve: Operation of Manzanar War Relocation Center — January 1943 —
November 1945 525
Administration Organization 526
Appointed Personnel 527
Evacuee Personnel 530
Center Photography 531
Community Government 536
Reestablishment 536
Peace Committee 537
Contents
Designations of "Mayor of Manzanar" and "Father of Manzanar" 538
"Peace of Manzanar" 538
Education 539
Recommencement of School 539
School Standards 540
Buildings/ Facilities 542
Preschool Program 543
Elementary School Program 544
Secondary School Program 545
Adult Education Program 547
Libraries 548
Hospital Class 550
Summer Programs 551
High School Organizations 552
Elementary School Organizations 553
Adult Education Organizations 553
Special School Events 553
Visual Education Museum 554
Public Relations 555
Parent-Teachers Association 555
Fall 1945 556
Industries 557
Clothing Factory 557
Furniture Shop 558
Alterations Shop 558
Typewriter Repair 559
Sign Shop 559
Domestic Sewing Machine Repair Unit 559
Mattress Factory 559
Food Processing Units 559
Agriculture 561
Vegetable Production 561
Poultry Farm 562
Hog Farm 563
Beef Cattle 563
Guayule 564
Mess Hall Operations 565
Community Activities 570
Departmental Activities 570
Arts and Crafts 570
Athletic Activities 571
Entertainment, Social, and Club Activities 573
Music 573
Gardening 574
Youth 575
Community Activities Cooperative Association 576
Public Relations with Owens Valley Residents 578
Special Events 578
Closing Recreational Program During the Summer of 1945 579
XI
CONTENTS
Military Background of Program 667
WRA Administrative Background of Program 669
Program Implementation 670
Evacuee Reactions to the Registration Program 673
Loyalty Review 675
Participation in U.S. Armed Forces 676
Selective Service Milestones 676
100th Battalion/442nd Regimental Combat Team 677
Impact of Military Participation on Relocation Center Life 679
Congressional Investigations 680
Segregation Program 682
Manzanar Historic Context 690
Registration Program 690
Program Implementation 690
WRA and Army Investigations of Evacuee Reaction to Registration 694
Segregation Program 702
Program Implementation 702
WRA Investigations of Evacuee Reaction to Segregation Program 709
Cultural Perspectives on Segregation Program 723
Participation in the Armed Forces 725
Military Intelligence Service 725
Service in the U.S. Army 728
Evacuee Reaction 731
Chapter Fifteen: The Relocation Program at Manzanar, September 1942 — November
1945 739
National Perspective 739
Initial Relocation Program Plans of the War Relocation Authority 739
Commencement of College Student Relocation 742
Seasonal Agricultural Work in Western Sugar Beet Fields 744
Adoption of Basic Leave Regulations 745
Problems Associated with Implementation of Relocation Program 746
Establishment of Relocation Field Offices 747
Changes in Leave Procedures 747
Relocation in 1943 748
Seasonal Leave, 1943-44 750
Local Resettlement Committees 751
Relocation Work at the Centers 752
Progress of Relocation in 1944 753
Liquidation Program 754
Final Relocation Drive 756
Resettlement Patterns 758
Manzanar Perspective 760
Early Phase of Relocation Program (September 1942 — May 1943) 760
Commencement of Relocation Program 760
Early "Leave" Efforts 760
Seasonal Agriculture Furlough Work 761
FBI Clearance 763
Early Relocation Trends 763
xiv