Essentials of Oceanography

576 Pages·101.748 MB·English

by  Trujillo A.P., Thurman H.V.

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E s s e n t i a l s o f
Oceanography
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E s s e n t i a l s o f
Oceanography
TENTH EDITION
Alan P. Trujillo
DISTINGUISHED TEACHING PROFESSOR
PALOMAR COLLEGE
Harold V. Thurman
PROFESSOR EMERITUS
MT. SAN ANTONIO COLLEGE
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Trujillo,Alan P.
Essentials of oceanography / Al Trujillo,Harold Thurman. 10th ed.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13:978-0-321-66812-7 (alk.paper)
ISBN-10:0-321-66812-X (alk.paper)
1. Oceanography. I.Thurman,Harold V.II.Title.
GC11.2.T49 2011
551.46 dc22
2009047666
Printed in the United States
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ISBN-10:0-321-66812-X / ISBN-13:978-0-321-66812-7 (Student Edition)
ISBN-10:0-321-70224-7 / ISBN-13:978-0-321-70224-1 (Books á la Carte)
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To my loyal and faithful companion
Hawthorn
Al Trujillo
For Deb and Bill
Hal Thurman
About Our Sustainability Initiatives
This book is carefully crafted to minimize environmental impact. The materials used to manufac-
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sumption, and the use of harmful chemicals.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
ALAN P. TRUJILLO Al Trujillo is a professor in the Earth,Space,and Aviation
Sciences Department at Palomar College in San Marcos,California.He received
his bachelors degree in geology from the University of California atDavis and
his masters degree in geology from Northern Arizona University, afterwards
working for several years in industry as a developmental geologist,hydrogeolo-
gist, and computer specialist.Al began teaching at Palomar in 1990. In 1997,
he was awarded Palomars Distinguished Faculty Award for Excellence in
Teaching and in 2005 he received Palomars Faculty Research Award.He has
co-authored Introductory Oceanographywith Hal Thurman and is a contributing
author for the textbooks Earth and Earth Science. In addition to writing and
teaching,Al works as a naturalist and lecturer aboard natural history expedition
vessels in Alaska and the Sea of Cortez/Baja California.His research interests
include beach processes,sea cliff erosion,and computer applications in oceanog-
raphy.As a hobby,he collects sand and is a member of the International Sand Collectors Society;he also serves as the
organizations Oceanography Division Advisor.Al and his wife,Sandy,have two children,Karl and Eva.
HAROLD V. THURMAN Hal Thurman retired in May 1994,after 24 years of teaching
in the Earth Sciences Department at Mt.San Antonio College in Walnut,California.In-
terest in geology led to a bachelors degree from Oklahoma A&M University,followed
by seven years working as a petroleum geologist,mainly in the Gulf of Mexico,where his
interest in the oceans developed. He earned a masters degree from California State
University at Los Angeles and then joined the Earth Sciences faculty at Mt.San Antonio
College.Other books that Hal has co-authored include Introductory Oceanographywith
Alan Trujillo as well as a marine biology textbook.He has also written articles on the Pa-
cific,Atlantic,Indian,and Arctic Oceans for the 1994 edition of World Book Encyclope-
dia and served as a consultant on the National Geographic publication Realms of the
Sea.He still enjoys going to sea on vacations with his wife,Iantha.
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BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface xvii
Introduction xxi
1
Introduction to Planet Earth 2
2
Plate Tectonics and the Ocean Floor 34
3
Marine Provinces 74
4
Marine Sediments 96
5
Water and Seawater 128
6
Air Sea Interaction 160
7
Ocean Circulation 192
8
Waves and Water Dynamics 230
9
Tides 260
10
The Coast: Beaches and Shoreline Processes 284
11
The Coastal Ocean 312
12
Marine Life and the Marine Environment 344
13
Biological Productivity and Energy Transfer 370
14
Animals of the Pelagic Environment 404
15
Animals of the Benthic Environment 436
16
The Oceans and Climate Change 468
Afterword 496
Appendix I Metric and English Units Compared 500
Appendix II Geographic Locations 504
Appendix III Latitude and Longitude on Earth 506
Appendix IV A Chemical Background: Why Water
Has 2 Hs and 1 O 509
Appendix V Careers in Oceanography 513
Glossary 517
Credits and Acknowledgments 536
Index 542
vii
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CONTENTS
Preface xvii Chapter in Review 32
Key Terms 32
To the Student xvii Review Questions 33
To the Instructor xvii Critical Thinking Exercises 33
Whats New in This Edition? xviii Oceanography on the Web 33
The New Instructional Package xix
Acknowledgments xix
INTRODUCTION xxi
I.1 What Is Oceanography? xxi
I.2 How Are Earths Oceans Unique? xxiii
I.3 What Is Rational Use of Technology? xxiv
1
INTRODUCTION TO PLANET EARTH 2
CHAPTER AT A GLANCE 3
1.1 How Many Oceans Exist on Earth? 3
The Four Principal Oceans,Plus One 3 Oceans versus
Seas:What Are the Seven Seas? 4
1.2 How was Early Exploration of the Oceans
Achieved? 6
Early History 6
BOX 1.1 HISTORICAL FEATURE Voyages to Inner Space: Visiting
the Deep-Ocean Floor in Submersibles 7
BOX 1.2 HISTORICAL FEATURE How Do Sailors Know Where
They Are at Sea?: From Stick Charts to Satellites 8
The Middle Ages 11 The Age of Discovery in
2
PLATE TECTONICS AND THE OCEAN
Europe 12 The Beginning of Voyaging for Science 13
History of Oceanography. . . To Be Continued 14 FLOOR 34
1.3 What Is the Nature of Scientific Inquiry? 14 CHAPTER AT A GLANCE 35
Observations 15 Hypothesis 15 Testing 15 2.1 What Evidence Supports Continental Drift? 35
Theory 16 Theories and the Truth 16 Fit of the Continents 36 Matching Sequences
1.4 How Were Earth and the Solar System Created? 16 of Rocks and Mountain Chains 36 Glacial Ages
The Nebular Hypothesis 17 Protoearth 17 and Other Climate Evidence 37 Distribution of
Density and Density Stratification 19 Earths Internal Organisms 37 Objections to the Continental Drift
Structure 20 Model 39
1.5 How Were Earths Atmosphere and Oceans 2.2 What Evidence Supports Plate Tectonics? 39
Created? 23 Earths Magnetic Field and Paleomagnetism 40
Origin of Earths Atmosphere 23 Origin of Earths BOX 2.1 RESEARCH METHODS IN OCEANOGRAPHY Do Sea
Oceans 23 Turtles (and other Animals) use Earths Magnetic Field for
1.6 Did Life Begin in the Oceans? 24 Navigation? 43
The Importance of Oxygen to Life 24 Stanley Millers Sea Floor Spreading and Features of the Ocean
Experiment 25 Basins 44 Other Evidence from the Ocean
BOX 1.3 HISTORICAL FEATURE The Voyage of HMS Beagle: Basins 46 The Acceptance of a Theory 48
How It Shaped Charles Darwins Thinking about the Theory of 2.3 What Features Occur at Plate Boundaries? 50
Evolution 26 Divergent Boundary Features 51 Convergent Boundary
Evolution and Natural Selection 26 Plants and Features 55
Animals Evolve 27 BOX 2.2 RESEARCH METHODS IN OCEANOGRAPHY
1.7 How Old Is Earth? 30 The NEPTUNE Project: An Interactive Sea Floor Observatory 58
Radiometric Age Dating 30 The Geologic Time Scale 31 Transform Boundary Features 60
ix
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x Contents
2.4 Testing the Model:What Are Some Applications of Plate Passive Versus Active Continental Margins 82
Tectonics? 60 Continental Shelf 82 Continental Slope 83 Submarine
Hotspots and Mantle Plumes 60 Seamounts and Canyons and Turbidity Currents 84 Continental Rise 85
Tablemounts 64 Coral Reef Development 64 BOX 3.2 RESEARCH METHODS IN OCEANOGRAPHY A Grand
Detecting Plate Motion with Satellites 66 Break : Evidence for Turbidity Currents 86
2.5 How Has Earth Changed in the Past,and How Will it 3.4 What Features Exist in the Deep-Ocean Basins? 87
Look in the Future? 69 Abyssal Plains 87 Volcanic Peaks of the Abyssal
The Past:Paleogeography 66 The Future:Some Bold Plains 87 Ocean Trenches and Volcanic Arcs 88
Predictions 66 3.5 What Features Exist Along the Mid-Ocean Ridge? 88
2.6 Plate Tectonics. . .To Be Continued 70 Volcanic Features 90 Hydrothermal Vents 90 Fracture
Chapter in Review 71 Zones and Transform Faults 91
Key Terms 72 BOX 3.3 RESEARCH METHODS IN OCEANOGRAPHY
Review Questions 72 Recovering Oceanographic Equipment Stuck in Lava 92
Critical Thinking Exercises 73 Oceanic Islands 94
Oceanography on the Web 73 Chapter in Review 94
Key Terms 95
Review Questions 95
Critical Thinking Exercises 95
Oceanography on the Web 95
4
MARINE SEDIMENTS 96
CHAPTER AT A GLANCE 97
4.1 Why Are Marine Sediments Important? 97
BOX 4.1 HISTORICAL FEATURE Collecting the Historical Record
of the Deep-Ocean Floor 100
4.2 What Is Lithogenous Sediment? 101
Origin of Lithogenous Sediment 101 Composition of
Lithogenous Sediment 101 Sediment Texture 103
Distribution of Lithogenous Sediment 103
4.3 What Is Biogenous Sediment? 106
Origin of Biogenous Sediment 106 Composition of
Biogenous Sediment 106
BOX 4.2 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Diatoms: The Most Important
Things You Have (Probably) Never Heard Of 108
Distribution of Biogenous Sediment 109
4.4 What Is Hydrogenous Sediment? 112
Origin of Hydrogenous Sediment 113 Composition and
Distribution of Hydrogenous Sediment 114
4.5 What Is Cosmogenous Sediment? 115
Origin,Composition,and Distribution of Cosmogenous
Sediment 115
4.6 What Mixtures of Sediment Exist? 116
4.7 A Summary:How Are Pelagic and Neritic Deposits
Distributed? 116
Neritic Deposits 117
BOX 4.3 RESEARCH METHODS IN OCEANOGRAPHY When the
Dinosaurs Died: The Cretaceous Tertiary (K T) Event 118
3
MARINE PROVINCES 74 Pelagic Deposits 118 How Sea Floor Sediments
CHAPTER AT A GLANCE 75 Represent Surface Conditions 121 Worldwide Thickness
3.1 What Techniques Are Used to Determine Ocean of Marine Sediments 121
Bathymetry? 75 4.8 What Resources Do Ocean Sediments Provide? 122
Soundings 75 Echo Soundings 76 Energy Resources 122 Other Resources 123
BOX 3.1 RESEARCH METHODS IN OCEANOGRAPHY Sea Floor Chapter in Review 126
Mapping from Space 78 Key Terms 126
Seismic Reflection Profiles 80 Review Questions 127
3.2 What Does Earths Hypsographic Curve Reveal? 80 Critical Thinking Exercises 127
3.3 What Features Exist on Continental Margins? 81 Oceanography on the Web 127