Essentials of Nuclear Medicine Physics and Instrumentation

244 Pages·2013·26.435 MB·English

by  Rachel A. Powsner, Mark R. Palmer, Edward R. Powsner

Essentials of
Nuclear Medicine
Physics and
Instrumentation
To Ronald, Arianna, and Daniel, for their patience and support throughout this project.
R.A.P.
To Giorgio and Beatrice for their inspirational energy and enthusiasm.
M.R.P.
To Rhoda M. Powsner, MD, JD, for her love, support, and continuing help.
E.R.P.
Essentials of
Nuclear Medicine
Physics and
Instrumentation
Rachel A. Powsner,
MD
Associate Professor of Radiology
Boston University School of Medicine
Director, Division of Nuclear Medicine
Department of Radiology
Boston Veterans Administration Healthcare System
Boston, MA, USA
Matthew R. Palmer,
PhD
Medical Physicist
Department of Radiology
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center
Assistant Professor of Radiology
Harvard Medical School
Boston, MA, USA
Edward R. Powsner,
MD
Former Chief, Nuclear Medicine Service
Veterans Administration Hospital
Allen Park, MI
Former Professor and Associate Chairman
Department of Pathology
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI, USA
THIRD EDITION
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Powsner, Rachel A.
[Essentials of nuclear medicine physics]
Essentials of nuclear medicine physics and instrumentation / Rachel A. Powsner, MD, associate professor
of radiology, Boston University School of Medicine, director, Division of Nuclear Medicine, Department of
Radiology, Boston Veterans Administration Healthcare System, Boston, MA, USA, Matthew R. Palmer, PhD,
medical physicist, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, assistant professor of
radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA, Edward R. Powsner, MD, former chief, Nuclear
Medicine Service, Veterans Administration Hospital, Allen Park, MI, former professor and associate
chairman, Department of Pathology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA. – Third edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-90550-0 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Nuclear medicine. 2. Medical physics. I. Palmer, Matthew R., 1958– II. Powsner, Edward R.,
1926– III. Title.
R895.P69 2013
616.07'575–dc23
2012047264
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not
be available in electronic books.
Cover Design: Michael Rutkowski
Cover Illustration: (top) © Jeja/iStockphoto; (bottom) courtesy of Rachel A. Powsner
Set in 9/12 pt Photina by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited, Hong Kong
1 2013
Contents
Preface, vii 13. Quality Control, 168
Acknowledgments, viii 14. Radiation Biology, 185
15. Radiation Dosimetry, 197
1. Basic Nuclear Medicine Physics, 1
16. Radiation Safety, 205
2. Interaction of Radiation with Matter, 21
17. Management of Nuclear Event
3. Formation of Radionuclides, 32 Casualties, 212
with Kevin Donohoe, MD
4. Nonscintillation Detectors, 41
5. Scintillation Detectors, 60
Appendix A: Common Nuclides, 224
6. Imaging Instrumentation, 73
Appendix B: Major Dosimetry for Common
7. Single-photon Emission Computed Radiopharmaceuticals, 225
Tomography, 91
Appendix C: Sample Calculations of the
8. Positron Emission Tomography, 103 S Value, 226
9. X-ray Computed Tomography, 119 Appendix D: Guide to Nuclear Regulatory
Commission Publications, 228
10. Hybrid Imaging Systems: PET-CT and
SPECT-CT, 129 Appendix E: Recommended Reading by Topic, 231
11. Image Reconstruction, Processing,
and Display, 134 Index, 232
12. Information Technology, 161
v
Preface
After years of postgraduate training, many physi- Numerous illustrations are included. They are
cians have forgotten some (or most) of their under- highly schematic and are designed to illustrate con-
graduate and high school physics and may find cepts rather than represent scale models of their
submersion into nuclear physics somewhat daunt- subjects. This text is intended for radiology resi-
ing. This book begins with a very basic introduction dents, cardiology fellows, nuclear medicine fellows,
to nuclear physics and the interactions of radiation nuclear medicine technology students, and others
and matter. It then proceeds with discussions of interested in an introduction to concepts in nuclear
nuclear medicine instrumentation used for produc- medicine physics and instrumentation.
tion of nuclides, measurement of doses, surveying
radioactivity, and imaging (including SPECT, PET, Rachel A. Powsner
CT, PET-CT, and SPECT-CT). An introduction to Matthew R. Palmer
information technology is followed by a chapter on Edward R. Powsner
instrumentation quality control. The final chapters
cover radiation biology, radiation safety, and radia-
tion accidents.
vii
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the following indi- quality control and the physics of crystal scintilla-
viduals for their help with this edition: Anupma Jati, tors. In addition, Dr. Frank Masse generously
MD, kindly critiqued the CT dosimetry section of the reviewed the material on radiation accidents and
text. On the topic of quality control, Gary Murphy, Mark Walsh, CHP, critiqued the radiation safety text.
RT, was most helpful with CT-related questions We would also like to thank the following indi-
and Kandace Craft, RTN, and Chris Lindsey, FSE, viduals for their help in reviewing portions of the
answered queries about PET-CT. P. Satish Nair, PhD, first edition during its preparation: David Rockwell,
generously made comments on the dosimetry MD, Maura Dineen-Burton, CNMT, Dipa Patel, MD,
chapter and David Drum, MD, also reviewed this Alfonse Taghian, MD, Hernan Jara, PhD, Susan
portion and answered numerous questions about Gussenhoven, PhD, John Shaw, MS, Michael Squil-
radiation safety and dosimetry. We wish to thank lante, PhD, Kevin Buckley, CHP, Jayne Caruso,
J. Anthony Parker, MD, for his helpful comments on Victor Lee, MD, Toby Wroblicka, MD, Dan Winder,
the topic of cancer induction from low-dose ioniz- MD, Dennis Atkinson, MD, and Inna Gazit, MD.
ing radiation as well as serving as a reference for an Thanks to Peter Shomphe, ARRT, CNMT, Bob Dann,
assortment of specific questions relating to the text. PhD, and Laura Partriquin, MD, for wading through
The authors also gratefully acknowledge Dr. Kevin the manuscript in its entirety. We greatly appreciate
Donohoe, who kindly shared his expertise and took the patience shown at that time by Robert Zimmer-
the time to review and supplement the material on man, MSEE, Kevin Buckley, CHP, John Widman,
radiation accidents in the current and preceding PhD, CHP, Peter Waer, PhD, Stephen Moore, PhD,
edition of this text. Since this edition incorporates Bill Worstell, PhD, and Hernan Jara, PhD, while
text from prior editions, the authors would like to answering our numerous questions. Thanks to
thank the following individuals for their help with Delia Edwards, Milda Pitter, and Paul Guidone, MD,
the second edition: Stephen Moore, PhD, on the for taking time to pose as models. The authors
topic of SPECT processing, including iterative recon- would also like to thank Rhoda M. Powsner, MD, for
struction; Fred Fahey, DSc, on PET instrumentation; her assistance in reviewing sections of the text and
and Robert Zimmerman, MSEE, on gamma camera for proofreading the review questions.
viii
CHAPTER 1
Basic Nuclear Medicine Physics
Properties and structure of matter (Figure 1.1). With these basic properties in mind,
we can look at matter in more detail.
Matter has several fundamental properties. For our Matter is composed of molecules. In any chemi-
purposes, the most important are mass and charge cally pure material, the molecules are the smallest
(electric). We recognize mass by the force gravity units that retain the characteristics of the material
exerts on a material object (commonly referred to itself. For example, if a block of salt were to be
as its weight) and by the object’s inertia, which is broken into successively smaller pieces, the smallest
the “resistance” we encounter when we attempt to fragment with the properties of salt would be a
change the position or motion of a material object. single salt molecule (Figure 1.2). With further frag-
Similarly, we can, at least at times, recognize mentation, the molecule would no longer be salt.
charge by the direct effect it can have on us or that Molecules, in turn, are composed of atoms. Most
we can observe it to have on inanimate objects. For molecules consist of more than one kind of atom—
example, we may feel the presence of a strongly salt, for example, is made up of atoms of chlorine
charged object when it causes our hair to move or and atoms of sodium. The atoms themselves are
even to stand on end. More often than not, however, composed of smaller particles, the subatomic parti-
we are insensitive to charge. But whether grossly cles, which are discussed later. The molecule is held
detectable or not, its effects must be considered here together by chemical bonds among its atoms. These
because of the role charge plays in the structure of bonds are formed by the force of electrical attrac-
matter. tion between oppositely charged parts of the mole-
Charge is generally thought to have been recog- cule. This force is often referred to as the Coulomb
nized first by the ancient Greeks. They noticed that force after Charles A. de Coulomb, the physicist who
some kinds of matter, an amber rod for example, characterized it. This is the force involved in chemi-
can be given an electric charge by rubbing it with a cal reactions such as the combining of hydrogen
piece of cloth. Their experiments convinced them and oxygen to form water. The electrons of the atom
that there are two kinds of charge: opposite charges, are held by the electrical force between them and
which attract each other, and like charges, which the positive nucleus. The nucleus of the atom is held
repel. One kind of charge came to be called positive, together by another type of force—the nuclear
and the other negative. We now know that negative force—which is involved in the release of atomic
charge is associated with electrons. The rubbing energy. Nuclear forces are orders of magnitude
transferred some of the electrons from the atoms of greater than electrical forces.
the matter in the rod to the cloth. In a similar
fashion, electrons can be transferred from a cat’s fur Elements
to a hand. After petting, the cat will have a net posi- There are more than 100 species of atoms. These
tive charge and the person a net negative charge species are referred to as elements. Most of the
Essentials of Nuclear Medicine Physics and Instrumentation, Third Edition. Rachel A. Powsner, Matthew R. Palmer, and
Edward R. Powsner.
© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
1
2    Essentials of Nuclear Medicine Physics and Instrumentation
Figure 1.1 Electrostatic charge.
(cid:49)(cid:68)
(cid:38)(cid:79)
Figure 1.2 The NaCl molecule is the smallest unit of salt that retains the characteristics of salt.
known elements—for example, mercury, helium, when they were formed, they proved too unstable to
gold, hydrogen, and oxygen—occur naturally on survive in detectable amounts into the present.
earth; others are not usually found in nature but All the elements have been assigned symbols or
are made by humans—for example, europium abbreviated chemical names, for example gold, Au;
and americium. A reasonable explanation for the mercury, Hg; and helium, He. Some symbols are
absence of some elements from nature is that if and obvious abbreviations of the English name; others