Table Of Content

Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents in Food Preservation Perishable products such as fruits and vegetables account for the largest proportion of food loss due to their short shelf life, especially in the absence of proper storage facilities, which requires sustainable, universal, and convenient preservation technology. The existing methods to prolong the shelf life of food mainly include adding preservatives, irradiation, cold storage, heat treatment, and controlled atmosphere storage. But with disadvantages in irradiation, cold storage, heat treatment, and controlled atmosphere storage, chemical synthetic preservatives . are still the main means to control food corruption. As the food industry responds to the increasing consumer demand for green, safe, and sustainable products, it is reformulating new products to replace chemical synthetic food additives. Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents in Food Preservation provides a comprehensive introduction to the antimicrobial activity of plant essential oils and their application strategies in food preservation. It is aimed at food microbiology experts, food preservation experts, food safety experts, food technicians, and students. Features: • Summarizes the application strategy and safety of essential oil in the field of food preservation • Describes the synergistic antibacterial effect of essential oil and antimicrobial agents • Explains the action mechanism of essential oil as antimicrobial agent against foodborne fungi, foodborne bacteria, viruses, and insects • Analyzes the antimicrobial activity of essential oil in gas phase The book discusses how as a natural antimicrobial and antioxidant, essential oil has great potential to be used in the food industry to combat the growth of foodborne pathogens and spoilage microorganisms. But because the essential oil itself has obvious smell and is sensitive to light and heat, it cannot be directly added to the food matrix and thus the application strategies presented in this book explain how to alleviate those issues. Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents in Food Preservation Jian Ju First edition published 2023 by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487–2742 and by CRC Press 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC © 2023 Jian Ju Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978–750–8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected] Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. ISBN: 978-1-032-34874-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-35904-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-32926-8 (ebk) DOI: 10.1201/9781003329268 Typeset in Times by Apex CoVantage, LLC Contents Preface ..................................................................................................................... xiii About the Author. ..................................................................................................... xv Chapter 1 Application of Plant Essential Oils in Different Fields ........................ 1 1.1 Application of Plant Essential Oil in Food Industry.................. 1 1.2 Application of Plant Essential Oil in Fish Culture .................... 4 1.3 Application of Plant Essential Oil in Livestock and Poultry Breeding ................................................................. 5 1.4 Application of Plant Essential Oil in Pesticide Industry ........... 5 1.5 Application of Plant Essential Oil in Cosmetic Industry ........... 6 1.6 Application of Plant Essential Oils in Medicine ....................... 7 1.7 Concluding Remarks ................................................................. 8 References ............................................................................................ 8 Chapter 2 The Inhibitory Activity and Mechanism of Essential Oils on Foodborne Bacteria ............................................................................ 13 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 13 2.2 Sources and Extraction Methods of Common Essential Oils ........................................................................... 14 2.3 The Main Chemical Components of Essential Oils ................ 14 2.4 Relationship Between Chemical Constituents and Antibacterial Activities of Essential Oils ................................. 17 2.5 Main Evaluation Methods of Essential Oils Antibacterial Effect .................................................................. 17 2.5.1 Disc Diffusion Method .............................................. 18 2.5.2 Dilution Method ........................................................ 18 2.5.3 Time Sterilization ...................................................... 19 2.5.4 Checkerboard Test ..................................................... 19 2.6 Inhibitory Effect of Essential Oils on Foodborne Pathogenic Bacteria ................................................................. 20 2.7 Antibacterial Mechanism ......................................................... 20 2.7.1 Damage Effect of Essential Oil on Cell Wall ............ 20 2.7.2 Damage Effect of Essential Oil on Cell Membrane ..... 23 2.7.2.1 Effect of Essential Oil on Protein in Cell Membrane ..................................... 23 2.7.2.2 Effect of Essential Oil on Fatty Acids in Cell Membrane........................... 24 2.7.3 Effect of Essential Oil on Energy Metabolism .......... 25 2.7.4 Effect of Essential Oil on Genetic Material .............. 25 2.7.5 Effect of Essential Oil on Cell Morphology.............. 26 2.7.6 Effect on Exercise Ability and Biofilm Formation ....... 27 v vi Contents 2.7.7 Effect on Quorum Sensing ........................................ 27 2.7.8 Effect of Essential Oil on Bacterial Toxins ............... 29 2.8 Concluding Remarks ............................................................... 29 References .......................................................................................... 31 Chapter 3 The Inhibitory Activity and Mechanism of Essential Oils on Foodborne Fungi ........................................................................... 39 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 39 3.2 Main Factors Affecting the Yield and Chemical Composition of Essential Oil ................................................... 40 3.2.1 Harvest Time of Plants .............................................. 40 3.2.2 Geographical Position ............................................... 41 3.2.3 Weather Conditions ................................................... 41 3.2.4 Extraction Method ..................................................... 41 3.2.5 Drying Conditions ..................................................... 42 3.2.6 Distillation Time........................................................ 42 3.3 Common Experimental Methods for Evaluating Antimicrobials Mechanism ..................................................... 43 3.3.1 Permeability of Cell Membrane ................................ 43 3.3.2 Integrity of Cell Membrane ....................................... 45 3.3.3 Release of Cellular Components ............................... 45 3.4 Antifungal Activity of Essential Oils ....................................... 46 3.4.1 Effect on the Cell Wall and Cell Membrane ............. 46 3.4.2 Effect on Nucleic Acids and Proteins ........................ 50 3.4.3 Effect on Mitochondria ............................................. 51 3.4.4 Effect on Membrane Pumps ...................................... 52 3.4.5 Effect on ROS Production ......................................... 53 3.4.6 Effect of Mycotoxins ................................................. 54 3.4.7 Effect on Biofilms ..................................................... 54 3.5 Concluding Remarks ............................................................... 56 References .......................................................................................... 57 Chapter 4 Essential Oils in Vapor Phase as Antimicrobial Agents ..................... 69 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 69 4.2 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils ................................. 69 4.2.1 Phenols ...................................................................... 71 4.2.2 Terpenoids ................................................................. 71 4.3 Detection Methods of Volatile Compounds in Essential Oils ....72 4.4 Interaction Between Essential Oils and Their Components .... 72 4.5 Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils in Vapor Phase ......... 74 4.6 Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils in Vapor Phase .................................................................. 74 4.6.1 Inverted Petri Dish Method ....................................... 75 4.6.2 Boxes of Different Materials to Create the Volatile Space of Essential Oils ................................ 75 Contents vii 4.6.3 Agar Plug Method ..................................................... 75 4.6.4 Other Methods ........................................................... 75 4.7 Potential Applications of Essential Oils in Vapor Phase ......... 76 4.8 Concluding Remarks ............................................................... 78 References .......................................................................................... 78 Chapter 5 Synergistic Antibacterial Effect of Essential Oils and Antibacterial Agent............................................................................. 87 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 87 5.2 Factors Affecting the Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils ....88 5.2.1 Microorganisms ......................................................... 88 5.2.1.1 Species of Microorganism ........................ 88 5.2.1.2 Number of Microorganisms ..................... 88 5.2.1.3 Stress Response of Microorganisms ......... 89 5.2.2 Dispersants and Emulsifiers ...................................... 89 5.2.3 Cultivation Conditions .............................................. 89 5.2.3.1 Time .......................................................... 89 5.2.3.2 Temperature .............................................. 90 5.2.3.3 Oxygen Content ........................................ 90 5.2.3.4 Acidity and Alkalinity .............................. 90 5.3 Methods for Evaluating the Synergistic Effect of Drugs ......... 90 5.4 The Interaction Between Essential Oils and Its Active Components ............................................................................. 92 5.5 Combined Application of Essential Oils and Antimicrobial Agents ............................................................... 93 5.5.1 The Main Causes of Bacterial Drug Resistance ........ 93 5.5.2 The Potential of Combined Essential Oils and Food Additives .................................................... 93 5.5.3 The Potential of Combined Essential Oils and Antibiotics .......................................................... 94 5.6 Concluding Remarks ............................................................... 95 References .......................................................................................... 96 Chapter 6 Antioxidant Activity and Mechanism of Essential Oils ................... 103 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 103 6.2 Oxidative Stress ..................................................................... 104 6.2.1 Effect of Oxidative Stress on Protein ...................... 104 6.2.2 Effect of Oxidative Stress on Lipids ....................... 104 6.2.3 Effect of Oxidative Stress on Genetic Material ....... 104 6.3 Free Radicals ......................................................................... 105 6.4 Antioxidant System ............................................................... 106 6.5 Antioxidative Components in Essential Oils ......................... 106 6.6 Antioxidant Mechanism of Essential Oils ............................. 108 6.6.1 Direct Antioxidant Effect ........................................ 108 6.6.1.1 Free Radical Scavenging ........................ 108 viii Contents 6.6.1.2 Chelation With Metal Ions ..................... 109 6.6.2 Indirect Antioxidant Effect ...................................... 110 6.6.2.1 Inhibit Lipid Peroxidation ...................... 110 6.6.2.2 Regulate the Level of Antioxidant Enzymes ................................................. 111 6.7 Factors Affecting the Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils ..................................................................... 111 6.7.1 Solubility ................................................................. 112 6.7.2 Extraction Method ................................................... 112 6.7.3 Initiator of Oxidation............................................... 113 6.7.4 Receptor Type ......................................................... 113 6.7.5 Storage Condition.................................................... 113 6.8 Concluding Remarks ............................................................. 113 References ........................................................................................ 114 Chapter 7 Antiviral Activity and Mechanism of Essential Oils ........................ 121 7.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 121 7.2 An Overview of Viruses......................................................... 122 7.3 Plant Essential Oils With Antiviral Activity and Their Active Components ............................................................... 123 7.4 SARS-CoV-2 Entering the Airway ........................................ 124 7.5 The Main Antiviral Pathway and Mechanism of Essential Oil and Its Active Components .............................................. 126 7.5.1 The Main Antiviral Ways of Essential Oils and Their Active Components ........................................ 126 7.5.2 Antiviral Mechanism of Essential Oil and Its Active Components ................................................. 127 7.6 Concluding Remarks ............................................................. 129 References ........................................................................................ 129 Chapter 8 The Repellent or Insecticidal Effect of Essential Oils Against Insects and Its Mechanism ............................................................... 135 8.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 135 8.2 Active Components in Plant Essential Oils That Have Insecticidal or Insecticidal Effects ......................................... 136 8.2.1 Terpene Compound ................................................. 137 8.2.2 Phenolic Compounds .............................................. 138 8.2.3 Alkaloid ................................................................... 139 8.3 Inhibitory Effect of Plant Essential Oils on the Reproductive Ability of Insect Pests...................................... 139 8.4 Repellent or Insecticidal Activity of Plant Essential Oils ......................................................................... 139 8.5 Insecticidal Mechanism of Plant Essential Oils .................... 140 8.6 Development of Resistance to Plant Essential Oils or Phytochemicals ................................................................. 141 Contents ix 8.7 Concluding Remarks ............................................................. 142 References ........................................................................................ 143 Chapter 9 Preparation Strategy and Application of Porous Starch Microcapsule and Cyclodextrin Containing Essential Oils .............. 147 9.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 147 9.2 The Concept and Development of Microencapsulation ........ 147 9.3 Wall and Core Materials of Microcapsules ........................... 148 9.3.1 Wall Materials ......................................................... 148 9.3.2 Core Materials ......................................................... 149 9.4 Application of Microencapsulation Technology in Food Industry ......................................................................... 149 9.5 Modified Starch ..................................................................... 150 9.6 Structural Characteristics and Properties of Porous Starch ..................................................................................... 150 9.7 Preparation of Microencapsulated Porous Starch .................. 152 9.8 Binding Characteristics of Essential Oils–Starch Microcapsules ........................................................................ 152 9.9 Preparation of Essential Oils–Starch Microcapsules ............. 153 9.10 Action Mechanism ................................................................. 158 9.11 Application of Essential Oils–Starch Microcapsules in Food Preservation .............................................................. 162 9.12 Application of the Combination of Cyclodextrin and Essential Oils in Food Preservation ................................ 163 9.13 Concluding Remarks ............................................................. 165 References ........................................................................................ 165 Chapter 10 Preparation Strategy and Application of Edible Coating Containing Essential Oils ................................................................. 171 10.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 171 10.2 The Concept and Development of Edible Coatings .............. 171 10.3 Requirements for the Use of Edible Coating Materials ......... 172 10.4 Materials Used for Essential Oils–Edible Coatings .............. 172 10.4.1 Polysaccharide-Based Coatings .............................. 176 10.4.2 Protein-Based Coatings ........................................... 177 10.4.3 Lipid-Based Coatings .............................................. 178 10.4.4 Composite Coatings ................................................ 178 10.5 Definition and Production Method of Coating ...................... 179 10.5.1 Definition of Essential Oils–Edible Coating ........... 179 10.5.2 Production Method of Coating ................................ 179 10.5.2.1 Dipping Method ..................................... 179 10.5.2.2 Spraying Method .................................... 180 10.5.2.3 Spreading Method .................................. 181 10.5.2.4 Thin Film Hydration Method ................. 181 10.6 Mechanisms of Food Protection ............................................ 182