Table Of ContentESSENTIAL
ETHNOGRAPHIC
METHODS
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ETHNOGRAPHER’S TOOLKIT
Second Edition
Jean J. Schensul, Institute for Community Research, Hartford, Connecticut
Margaret D. LeCompte, University of Colorado, Boulder
PURPOSE OF THE ETHNOGRAPHER’S TOOLKIT
The second edition of the Ethnographer’s Toolkit is designed with the novice fi eld
researcher in mind. In this revised and updated version, the authors of the Toolkit
take the reader through a series of seven books that spell out the steps involved in
doing ethnographic research in community and institutional settings. Using simple,
reader-friendly language, the Toolkit includes case studies, examples, illustrations,
checklists, key points, and additional resources, all designed to help the reader fully
understand each and every step of the ethnographic process. Eschewing a formulaic
approach, the authors explain how to develop research questions, create research
designs and models, decide which data collection methods to use, and how to ana-
lyze and interpret data. Two new books take the reader through ethical decision-
making and protocols specifi c for protection of individual and group participants in
qualitative research, and ways of applying qualitative and ethnographic research to
practical program development, evaluation, and systems change efforts. The Tool-
kit is the perfect starting point for students and faculty in the social sciences, public
health, education, environmental studies, allied health, and nursing, who may be
new to ethnographic research. It also introduces professionals from diverse fi elds
to the use of observation, assessment, and evaluation for practical ways to improve
programs and achieve better service outcomes.
1. Designing and Conducting Ethnographic Research: An Introduction, Second
Edition, by Margaret D. LeCompte and Jean J. Schensul
2. Initiating Ethnographic Research: A Mixed Methods Approach, by Stephen L.
Schensul, Jean J. Schensul, and Margaret D. LeCompte
3. Essential Ethnographic Methods: A Mixed Methods Approach, Second Edition,
by Jean J. Schensul and Margaret D. LeCompte
4. Specialized Ethnographic Methods: A Mixed Methods Approach, edited by
Jean J. Schensul and Margaret D. LeCompte
5. Analysis and Interpretation of Ethnographic Data: A Mixed Methods
Approach, Second Edition, by Margaret D. LeCompte and Jean J. Schensul
6. Ethics in Ethnography: A Mixed Methods Approach, by Margaret D. LeCompte
and Jean J. Schensul
7. Ethnography in Practice: A Mixed Methods Approach by Jean J. Schensul and
Margaret D. LeCompte
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ESSENTIAL
ETHNOGRAPHIC
METHODS
A Mixed Methods Approach
Second Edition
Jean J. Schensul and
Margaret D. LeCompte
A division of
ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC.
Lanham (cid:129) New York (cid:129) Toronto (cid:129) Plymouth, UK
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Published by AltaMira Press
A division of Rowman & Littlefi eld Publishers, Inc.
A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefi eld Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
www.rowman.com
10 Thornbury Road, Plymouth PL6 7PP, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2013 by AltaMira Press
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic
or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written
permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Schensul, Jean J.
Essential ethnographic methods : a mixed methods approach / Jean J. Schensul,
Margaret D. LeCompte. — 2nd ed.
p. cm. — (Ethnographer's toolkit ; Book 3)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7591-2203-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-7591-2204-8 (electronic)
1. Ethnology—Methodology. 2. Ethnology—Research. 3. Ethnology—Fieldwork.
I. LeCompte, Margaret Diane. II. Title.
GN345.S3619 2012
305.8001—dc23
2012023519
™
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American
National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library
Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.
Printed in the United States of America
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CONTENTS
List of Tables and Figures ix
List of Examples xi
Introduction to the Ethnographer’s Toolkit xvi
Chapter 1 Essential Data Collection 1
What Is Essential Data Collection? 1
Why Are Research Questions Required to
Guide Essential Data Collection? 2
The Value of Research Modeling Based on
Research Questions and Prior Knowledge 5
Basic Skills Required in Essential Data Collection 8
Establishing Professional Boundaries: Intimacy and
Relationships in Face-to-Face Data Collection 17
Summary: Challenges in Collecting Observational
and Interview Data in Person 20
Chapter 2 Defi ning and Entering the Field 22
Fieldwork and the Field 23
The Ethnographer as Self-Refl ective Tool for Inquiry 26
Establishing Relationships to Facilitate Entry 32
Steps in Entering a Research Setting 32
Chapter 3 Recording and Organizing Ethnographic
Field Data: Field Notes, Interviews, Drawings,
Visual Documentation, and Survey Data 47
What Are Field Notes, and Why Are They Important? 47
Recording Field Notes 54
Writing Up Field Notes 56
Making Decisions about What to Write 60
Organizing and Managing Ethnographic Data While
in the Field 78
Storing Quantitative Data for Subsequent Analysis 81
Summary 82
v
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vi CONTENTS
Chapter 4 Participant Observation and Informal Interviewing
in the Field 83
Introduction 83
Differences between Participant Observation
and Nonparticipant Observation 84
Observation from a Distance 88
Deciding Where and What to Observe 91
Deciding When to Observe 101
Informal Interviewing in the Field 103
Tips on Recording Observations and Informal Interviews 107
Dynamics and Challenges in Field Observation 110
Summary 111
Chapter 5 Additional Methods for Collecting Exploratory Data 112
Introduction 112
Social and Other Forms of Mapping 112
Eliciting Information through Objects, Drawings,
Materials, and Photographs 124
Timelines 128
Organizational Charts 131
Summary 132
Chapter 6 In-depth, Open-ended Exploratory Interviewing 134
Introduction and Defi nitions 134
Purposes of In-depth, Exploratory,
Open-ended Interviewing 135
Selecting and Sampling: When and Whom to Interview 137
Preparing for the Interview 140
Starting an Unstructured Exploratory Interview 151
Structuring Open-ended Interviews 152
Self-management during Interviewing 163
Recording Research Interviews 166
Summary 167
Chapter 7 Semistructured Interviews and Observations 171
What Are Semistructured Forms of Data Collection? 171
Conducting Semistructured Interviews 174
Constructing a Semistructured Interview Schedule 179
Analysis of Semistructured Interview Data 183
Conducting Semistructured Observations 188
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CONTENTS vii
Sampling in Semistructured Data Collection 191
Identifying and Resolving Challenges in
Semistructured Data Collection 193
Summary 194
Chapter 8 Focus Group Interviews 195
What Is a Group Interview? 195
Formal Focus Group Interviews 196
Organizing and Preparing for Formal Focus
Group Interviews 198
Creating a Representative Sample for a Focus Group 202
Identifying and Training Focus Group Facilitators 211
Conducting a Focus Group Interview 216
Asking Questions in Focus Group Interviews 220
Characteristics of Good Focus Group Questions 222
Recording Data from Focus Group Interviews 226
Videotaping 231
Validity and Reliability in Research with Focus Groups 233
Management and Analysis of Focus Group Interviews 237
Advantages, Uses, and Limitations of Focus
Group Interviews 239
Chapter 9 Structured Approaches to Ethnographic
Data Collection: Surveys 241
The Role of Structured Data Collection 241
Defi ning Ethnographic Surveys 243
Steps in the Construction of the Ethnographic Survey 247
Administration of Ethnographic Interviews 271
Analysis of Quantitative Data 275
Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative
Data: Triangulation 276
Summary 278
Chapter 10 Sampling in Ethnographic Research 280
Approaches to Selection in Ethnographic Research 283
Approaches to Sampling to Approximate or
Achieve Representativeness of a Population in
Ethnographic Research 294
Requirements for and Cautions about the Use of Samples 309
Summary 318
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viii CONTENTS
Chapter 11 Defi ning and Evaluating Quality in
Ethnographic Research 319
Introduction: What Is Research Quality? 319
Reliability, Validity, Objectivity, and Subjectivity 320
The Positivist Critique of Ethnography 323
Why Ethnographic Characteristics Fit Poorly
with Positivistic Canons for Research Quality 325
Validity 327
Reliability 341
Conclusion 343
References 345
Index 353
About the Authors and Artists 363
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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Domain Model: Predictors of Somali Students’
Educational Performance 5
Table 1.1: Hypotheses Linking Independent Domains in the
Research Model to the Dependent Domain—Somali Children’s
School Performance 6
Table 1.2: Unpacking Domains in a Research Model to Guide
Data Collection 7
Table 2.1: Gatekeepers and Key Informants 38
Figure 5.1: Map of One Block in Hartford’s North End 117
Figure 5.2: Community Health Fair, 9:30 a.m. 119
Figure 5.3: Community Health Fair, 1:30 p.m. 119
Figure 5.4: Hand-drawn Map of an Urban Low-income Area of Mumbai 121
Table 7.1: Work Section of Semistructured Interview Schedule Used
in Mauritius Study 179
Table 8.1: Comparison of Organization and Structuring of
Group Interviews 197
Table 8.2: Sample of Groups for a Study of Age Differences in
Work Patterns 204
Table 8.3: Sectors in a Study of Race and Gender Participation
in an Arts Program 204
Table 8.4: Solving Problems in Focus Group Sessions 218
Figure 9.1: Taxonomy: Somali Children’s Educational Performance
from Domain to Factor, Variable, and Item Levels 247
Figure 9.2: Methods of Data Collection Associated with the
Continuum of Abstraction 248
ix
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