ERIC EJ978117: A Response to Hartley

2012·0.07 MB·English

by  ERIC

Open Dialogue peer review:
A response to Hartley
John Radford
In responding to Jim Hartley, with whom I very largely agree, I first reflect on my own experience of teaching
Psychology in an institution which was successively college of technology, polytechnic and university. In the
second a new and fruitful method of assessing higher education essentially by peer review was developed, only
to be destroyed in the third. Psychology teaching has been affected by factors common to the whole system such
as increase in numbers particularly of women, enormously greater bureaucracy and control, and changes in
funding. This leads me to question the nature and purpose of degrees in Psychology, and to suggest the
possibility of radical changes in higher education, not so much to prescribe a realistic solution as to
demonstrate the possibility of thinking 'outside the box'.
Keywords: binary system; purpose of psychology degrees; structure of higher education; professionalism;
radical solutions.
Physician, heal thyself.
T
EACHING, and education in general, sionally above.) The main work was to
would seem to depend upon, among prepare students for the external BA
other things, learning, memory, percep- General of the University of London, in
tion, thinking, motivation, individual differ- which three subjects were taken for three
ences, social factors, motivation and many years. The very specific syllabus and exami-
more terms that feature in basic textbooks of nations were the responsibility of the
Psychology. Psychologists ought, therefore, London Board of Studies in Psychology,
to know a great deal about the basics of which then covered, and was constituted
teaching. Hence my title. from, the internal schools. At Enfield we had
James Hartley begins with some reminis- absolutely no input, it was like doing an
cences of his early days teaching Psychology, A-level. I and two colleagues shared a room
and I will accordingly indulge myself simi- with a technician, where planning, seminars
larly. In passing, I adopt Graham Richards’ and instrument repairs went on together or
useful distinction of upper case – Psychology in turn. To equip us for our duties we were
– for the discipline, and lower – psychology – each supplied with one ring binder and two
for the subject matter of that discipline. ball pens. As a matter of fact, this situation
I further distinguish the discipline, the body was rather a good introduction to teaching.
of problems, methods and knowledge, from The objective was clear, the students keen,
the subject, a selection of material and syllabus and timetables provided, and there
resources for purposes of dissemination, was little or no academic administration to
teaching, examining and so on, and from bother with, nor interference in what we
the profession, those who practice, both actually taught. The way we did it was, more
academically and otherwise. If this is familiar or less, the way we ourselves had been
I apologise. But to resume. My first lecturing taught. There were many other problems,
post, in 1964–1965, was at Enfield College of too bizarre to recount here. I have told the
Technology (now the University of Middle- story for the British Psychological Society
sex). Such colleges offered a range of Oral History project, and a written version is
courses, often up to degree level and occa- also available.
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 18 No 1, Spring 2012 35
© The British Psychological Society 2012
John Radford
As a result of them, however, I soon It meant a very large increase in non-
moved to West Ham College of Technology, academic work, but on the whole I think it
which, like other such colleges, became a worked well. Internally, as far as my institu-
Polytechnic in 1970 and a University in 1992. tion was concerned, the status of Polytechnic
There I was fortunate enough to lead what led to an increase of some 10 per cent in
became a very substantial Department. Each students and academic staff, and 100 per
of these three phases is relevant to Hartley’s cent in administrators. I don’t have figures
question as to whether Psychology is dealing for the next change, to a University. But
adequately with changing circumstances. Peter Oppenheimer, Emeritus Fellow of
The first was much like Enfield, we did exter- Christ Church, Oxford, wrote in the Times
nal London degrees, with the difference that Higher Education for 6 January 2011, that
the Board of Studies drew some of us into administrative staff rose at Oxford from
the job of examining. The main additional about 200 in the 1980s to 600 by 2000 to
administrative burden, one we took on 1100 now. The CNAA was replaced in 1992,
voluntarily, was selection of students. They tragically in my view, by an outdated and
had to have two A-level passes to qualify for discredited inspectorial system. I took part in
funding and admission to the degree course the first assessment of Psychology under this
(though we spent quite a lot of time trying to system, and it was no doubt indicative that
find loopholes, especially for mature whereas with the CNAA I had chaired such
students). But we did not select on that basis. assessments, having a background of devel-
Instead we saw all serious candidates for two oping new courses, and research and writing
individual interviews, gave them an intelli- on teaching, the chair now was taken by an
gence test, and rated their all-round accountant. I don’t think this is sour grapes.
performance, not just academic, from what- This system has of course gone through
ever information we had – the interviews, many further changes since then.
school or other reports, etc. It was very time As for teaching Psychology, through all
consuming but it seemed to work. A small bit this we did not, in some ways, change very
of research later indicated that the best much. At the start we worked out a tradi-
predictor of degree success was the inter- tional programme of lectures, seminars (no
view, but only when done by experienced more than five per group) and laboratory
interviewers with good agreement on crite- work. The content changed with new work
ria. Of course, this would be impossible now, published, some of the old divisions went
but it does point to the inadequacy of (‘thinking’, ‘perception’, etc., became
A-levels as the main or only basis of selection. ‘cognitive’, and so on) and practical work
The creation of Polytechnics, and the was transformed by computers. The major
development of the Council for National changes have been as elsewhere. Electronic
Academic Awards (CNAA) which approved communication, a very large increase in
their courses and awarded their degrees, intake, predominantly female, and a
marked a substantial if short-lived revolution perceived heavy increase in workload. This
in higher education. The essence of the last was examined by Malcolm Tight recently
CNAA’s approach was peer review, which (2009). Collating the 10 major surveys of
despite all its difficulties has served us pretty academic work load 1961 to 2004, he shows
well since it emerged with the Royal Society that the average hours reportedly worked
from around 1660 (although it can be seen increased significantly during the 1960s, but
in essence in the mediaeval ius ubique docendi, not greatly since then (as he points out, they
the right of graduates of one university to could hardly do so as they were then 48 to 55
teach in others). For the first time academics per week). What has increased, it will be no
had to think out, and justify to other experi- surprise to learn, is the administrative load,
enced colleagues, what they were doing. thus changing the balance of activities, with
36 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 18 No. 1, Spring 2012
A response to Hartley
teaching and research losing out. I now have in detail. At the least, I think the British
no direct experience, but at least one Psychological Society should consider the
colleague has told me that administration is inclusion of some contextual material in its
her largest single activity. Of course, in many requirements, even at the cost of less ‘core’
ways one cannot make a sharp division Psychology (Radford, 2008a, 2008b).
between the three. All lectures now must Hartley’s second reason is that Psychol-
have PowerPoint versions, which must be ogy has been ‘a victim of its own success’.
available to students. Is this teaching or Certainly it has become one of the most
administration? And is it desirable, or more popular subjects at both degree and GCE
desirable than spending the time chatting to A-levels. As again I have said before, I think
students? Forty years ago we did a lot of that, it is a matter of concern that this attraction
and many have said how valuable they felt it has overwhelmingly been female. I do think
to be. Observation suggests there is less now. that the study of human behaviour needs a
‘Office hours’ are the order of the day. balance. However, the increase in numbers is
With all this, Hartley’s major point is that only part of the generally increasing demand
the teaching of Psychology has not changed for higher education, which is still continu-
all that much. He suggests three main ing. It is a matter of speculation how
reasons. I think these are all valid, but that students will respond to the increasing costs
there is more to it (as I am sure he would of it, with a likely emphasis on degrees that
agree). His first point is the constraints of lead to jobs. We might recall that at Bologna,
the British Psychological Society. These have, generally recognised as the first Western
in fact, been a bone of contention for longer university, students paid lecturers to teach
than I can remember, which is back to the them, and could withhold the cash if they
famous meeting at Brown’s Hotel in 1970 did not get what they wanted, which was in
(I think) between the British Psychological general a useful qualification, mostly in law.
Society and Heads of Psychology Depart- Data summarised in Yahoo! Finance(accessed
ments. The formal constraint now is, of 15 January 2011) showed the average rate of
course, the Graduate Basis for Registration return on investment in taking a degree in
(GBR). I have argued before (e.g. Radford, various subjects. Top was Law at 17.2 per
2008a) that this has various shortcomings. cent (higher than Medicine because of the
One is that it is not appropriate for the large great length of medical courses), the average
majority of graduates in Psychology, who will was 12.1 per cent, and Psychology came in at
not enter one of the restricted professional 10.1 per cent. In other words, from a finan-
areas. Certainly a problem here is that it is cial point of view, other subjects are on aver-
not possible to tell in advance which students age a better bet than Psychology (of course
these will be, while most, probably, want the this was only a sample of subjects, and there
cachet of British Psychological Society are many other factors). On the other hand
approval. I also argue that the GBR applies Furnham and Pertrides (2010), found that
professional constraints to what should be a in a list of 20 subjects Psychology came
matter of the discipline or the subject. The fourth in terms of likelihood to ensure
standards of a profession are not maintained employment, after Law, Maths and English.
by restrictions on entry to its training However, Law was the only mainly profes-
courses, but by what the graduates of those sional subject included.
courses are certified to be competent to do, The third reason is the increase in
and by the understanding and acceptance of managerialism. Malcolm Tight suggests this
professional principles (Radford, 2003). Nor ‘reflects the decreasing trust in academics on
am I convinced how exactly the GBR actually the part of their key funder, the state; yet,
matches the requirements of training paradoxically, the increasing amount of time
courses. I think that should be investigated spent on it threatens the quality of the teach-
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 18 No. 1, Spring 2012 37
John Radford
ing and research it is meant to protect’. No promotion. The league tables of universities
doubt this is true, but it is not the only factor. published by the Times Higher Education,
For one thing, as Northcote Parkinson recently re-thought to great fanfare, remain
showed wittily back in 1958, there is a more very largely based on research. On question-
or less unstoppable tendency for administra- ing this with the Deputy Editor, I was told
tion to increase, regardless of what is being that quantitative measures of research are
administered. He would not be surprised to easier to obtain. However, this may be, the
learn that the Royal Navy now has, it seems, result is a very biased picture. It has long
more admirals than ships (letter, The Times, been pointed out, for example, Trow (1989),
14 May 2008). There is also a ‘mind your that a mass system of higher education
backs’ tendency. Once a new regulation or simply cannot be research-based. My own
routine is introduced, no one dare suggest view (which I tried to promote within the
its removal. A particularly clear example was CNAA) is that a unit offering degree level
the Health and Safety at Work Act of 1974. teaching should be undertaking a significant
Universities and colleges immediately amount of high level activity in the relevant
acquired armies of safety experts, and disciplines. This might be research in the
endless fire doors, etc., which they had narrow sense, consultancy, professional prac-
apparently managed without for the previ- tice, writing and other media work, and so
ous eight centuries. But more drastically, on. But at the same time teaching should be
there has been a clear growth of central the, or at least a, major basis for promotion
governmental control at least since 1945, or other reward. (Even in my Polytechnic
and not least in education (see Salter & days, I was repeatedly told by the Director
Tapper, 1994, among others). Cynically one that promotion could not be for teaching:
feels that control is valued for its own sake. ‘You don’t reward someone for what they are
The Polytechnics were created, it can be paid to do anyway!’ His view, however, was
suggested, largely because Government did that the criterion should be administration.)
not control the universities. They were Another factor is a traditional lack of
destroyed when they became bigger than the professionalism. Academics provide the basis
universities (although it is also true that for entry to most professions, but they have
many polys were pressing hard for the never become established, at least in this
higher status), and the CNAA became too country, as a profession themselves. Most,
independent. Sir Toby Weaver, the civil probably, feel dual, perhaps incompatible,
servant involved in setting that up, told me affiliations, to their institution and to their
in conversation that he never intended it to discipline. I have discussed this at some
be so powerful. length elsewhere, for example, Radford
We could add a couple more factors that (2003). One step towards it is qualification,
militate against the reform or advancement and universities now have formal training for
of teaching. One is, of course, the domi- new academic staff. How effective this is,
nance of research. This is a relatively recent I am not in a position to say. What I think is
development, especially in England (rather crucial to a profession is what I term responsi-
different in Scotland). Research only came ble autonomy, by which I mean the ability to
to be regarded as a, perhaps the, prime func- take better informed, one hopes wiser, deci-
tion of universities in the later 19th century. sions and actions, while having regard to the
It is often the major factor in appointments interests of others. This I think should char-
and promotion, as in other countries acterise universities themselves, their staff,
(Backes-Gellner & Schlinghoff, 2010). and the graduates they produce. I apologise
Parker (2008), however, found that post- again for repeating what I have published
1992 universities were much more likely to before. For academics, this means not only
recognise research and teaching equally for learning the techniques of teaching, and of
38 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 18 No. 1, Spring 2012
A response to Hartley
all the other tasks they have to carry out, but neously reducing resources. I think there are
understanding the principles and develop- fundamental questions about what higher
ment of education, so as to be able to stand education is or should be for, and how it
apart from the daily stress of a demanding should be structured and paid for. What I do
job, and consider what it is for and how it think is clear is that the existing system and
may really best be carried out. Academics are assumptions are not working very well. Some
usually responsible, I think, but it seems they of these assumptions in particular are that all
have decreasing autonomy. universities should be basically the same and
Hartley describes three particular lines of try to do the same job (and, as above, be
research into improving teaching. One is rated on the same criterion, research), all
into better ways of doing things, for exam- should be financed in the same way, and all
ple, taking notes, one is into approaches to students should end up with an equivalent
study, for example, ‘deep’ versus ‘surface’, degree (usually in one subject). In practice,
and one into student-centred versus topic- a hierarchical system persists. Williams and
centred methods. Personally I have never Filippakou (2010) analysed all 120,000
been very convinced by the second of these, entries in Who’s Who born in the 20th
but more generally I feel that the basic prin- century. Oxbridge remained the dominant
ciples of good teaching have probably not route to elite status, though its share fell
changed much since the activity itself from one third to one quarter, mainly due to
became established, no doubt with the first the rise of the Russell group. Many other
cities and the invention of writing. I have not countries, perhaps all, do not subscribe to
seen much to change what I summarised this (see the International Journal for Academic
20 years ago (Raaheim, Wankowski & Development, vol. 15, issue 1, 2010). Many
Radford, 1991). Essentially, good teaching have a flourishing private sector. Many Euro-
depends upon good teachers. There is no pean nations have some form of binary
one best way of teaching, and some excep- system, which appears to work well at least in
tional teachers are highly idiosyncratic. But terms of employability (Kivinen & Nurmi,
in general, good teachers are those who 2010, a study of German, Dutch, Finnish and
know and are committed to their subject/ Swiss graduates). As is well known, the state
discipline, are clear, well-prepared and open of California established in the 1920s a
to questions and comment, relate their mate- successful three-tier higher education
rial to practical or personal issues, and are system, further developed in the 1960s. In
concerned about each student and have this country, one of the ultimate political
time to interact with them, informally as well horrors is a ‘two-tier system’ in anything.
as formally. All this requires skills, hard work, That was one of the reasons for the Poly-
and persistence in the face of obstacles of all technics wishing to become universities,
kinds and little material reward compared to though not, as I have suggested, the main
many other professions. Good teaching is cause of their doing so.
inevitably, in my view, labour intensive, Many other systems are conceivable.
though there are ways of offsetting this. In I can, for example, envisage a system in
the same volume Kjell Raaheim described which a first degree consisted of three termi-
how he had successfully tackled the problem nal years, such that a student could leave at
of large numbers, in a system in which virtu- the end of each with an award. Courses
ally anyone could enrol on the first year of a could be modular, meaning free-standing
degree course, but faced a very selective units which could be taken at any university
examination for admission to the second. and accepted at any other. Every university
My fantasy is not for particular tech- would offer a broadly equivalent Foundation
niques to deal with trying to cram more and Course in the first year, and some or all
more into an existing system, while simulta- would offer a selection of more advanced
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 18 No. 1, Spring 2012 39
John Radford
courses in the second and third. The first sessions of three hours per day, morning,
year would seek to be a preparation for other afternoon and evening. Students would take
courses or for a career. (A function compa- two on each day, thus six hours a day,
rable to the mediaeval Arts course, the 30 hours per week. They might be made up
‘trivium and quadrivium’. Interestingly thus. Lectures, with subsequent discussion,
enough, the University of Winchester is two of two hours each (lectures are a poor
reported in the Times Higher Education, learning medium compared to supported
25 December 2010, to be developing a self-study (see Cord & Clements, 2010; and
modern equivalent.) For example, say eight Schmidt et al., 2010). Seminars in groups of
modules, to be taken over four terms of four to six, two of one hour each. ‘Assisted
11 weeks, two per term. One week vacation study’, i.e. with a member of staff available,
between terms, five weeks in the summer. six hours (two sessions), say in groups of 25.
The present academic year, with breaks for Practicals (as appropriate to the subject),
two Christian festivals and a longer one to similarly six. Private study, 10 hours. This is a
bring in the harvest, now overlaid with an much more prescriptive timetable than at
inappropriate semester system, is simply present, but still leaves ample time for
absurd. With free-standing modules, a recreation.
student might only ever take one, or a few, by Assuming a staff-student ration of 1:25
day or evening study. But to progress to a (higher than the ideal), staff might work say
second year, all would be required. Students 35 hours per week (in practice they would no
would need to be more mobile and flexible doubt do much more voluntarily, as now).
than at present. They would probably mix A pattern something like this. Lecture/
living at home with away, and study with discussion, one of two hours. Seminar, five of
employment (it is reported that currently one hour. Supervision of practicals and study,
graduates without work experience have 12 hours. Preparation, marking, private
little chance of a job – www.management- study, unavoidable meetings, fifteen hours.
issues.com, accessed 18 January 2011). Open door office hour, one. Individuals
Admission to the first year would be by valid would vary the last two items. This assumes
psychological methods, but the criteria that staff on first-year courses, and perhaps
would not be too stringent. Some institu- mostly on second and third years, would be
tions might offer pre-Foundation courses as primarily teachers, not researchers. This in
preparation for study. turn assumes that teaching would be
First year modules could be something accepted as equally valuable with research for
like this. 1. Health and Domestic Science – rewards and promotion. In practice, a given
healthy life styles, nutrition, basic cookery, academic might offer only one or two Foun-
home economics. 2. Philosophy, belief dation modules, and also teach more
systems, logic and scientific method. 3. Phys- advanced courses. Those teaching graduate
ical sciences, with emphasis on methods of courses would do more research. Lectures
enquiry. 4. Human sciences – biology, are greatly overused at present. I think one or
psychology, anthropology. 5. Society – poli- two good ones a week quite sufficient.
tics, economics, history. 6. The arts and sport Personal contact in contrast is much more
– one option from a range, which might be valuable but is currently increasingly difficult.
theory or practice or both. 7. Mathematics, On the basis I have assumed, one member of
statistics, finance. 8. Communication – use of staff could have tutorial responsibility for 25
English language, and of various media. This students, whom he or she would meet in
looks an enormous load but with selection, seminars and/or in supervised study. I also
and emphasis on method rather than a mass assume optimistically that administration,
of facts, I think the principles could be much reduced in quantity from the present,
taught. The teaching week could be of three would be mainly done by administrators.
40 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 18 No. 1, Spring 2012
A response to Hartley
Second and third years would be similar Government funding, directed and non-
but with larger modules, perhaps four in the directed. The latter would be a subvention to
second year and two in the third. By choos- all public universities, administered rather
ing related modules students could ‘major’ like the old University Grants Committee, an
in particular disciplines, while others could arms-length body, ideally with a rolling
opt for a more varied course. Universities programme so that universities could plan
would not seek to offer the whole range of ahead (e.g. grants for five or six years, but
more advanced courses, but would reviewed after every year or two years). The
specialise, the more so at Master’s and allocation would be based on a tariff system
Doctoral levels. Most if not all would offer for different disciplines, to reflect their
some such courses, and likewise would actual cost. This does assume economic
specialise in research in the same areas. stability – the old quinquennial system
Universities would be in a sense pyramid- collapsed under the impact of inflation in
shaped, with, ideally, all achieving high levels the 1970s. Directed funds would go to indi-
in some area or areas. vidual universities or units, to support work
Standards would be overseen by some- the government considered of national
thing along the lines of the CNAA, which importance.
worked through a system of Subject Boards, I have given a good deal of detail not as a
with a rolling membership of academics and prescription – no one is going to take it, so
others (importantly not under contract, thus please don’t quibble over figures – but to
independent), who built up a body of show that alternatives to the present system
expertise, and knowledge of the institutions are conceivable and workable. There are
they were assessing, and with whom they many other desiderata, such as physical
interacted. Such a body (call it the Higher conditions conducive to study and to infor-
Education Council) would need a wider mal contact of staff and students. There are
remit, to achieve a degree of compatibility also doubtless innumerable objections to
between the modules of different universi- such a programme apart from sheer inertia
ties so that students could transfer, particu- (a very major one is the effect of the Bologna
larly on progressing to higher stages. It Declaration of 1999 – Schriewer, 2009). But
would, of course, be independent of Govern- Psychology could take its place within it,
ment, but have an external ‘watchdog’. Self- both as a component of general education
regulation is always better than imposed, but and as preparation for a specialised career.
there must also be an independent mecha- I have strayed very far from Hartley’s (2012)
nism of monitoring. Responsible autonomy more practical issues, but perhaps there is
again. here some food for thought.
Government funding necessarily
depends on the economic situation. There Correspondence
would be freedom to charge fees, and to Emeritus Professor John Radford
create new institutions of university status, School of Psychology,
subject to the HEC. There could be a corre- University of East London,
lation between fees charged and bursaries Water Lane,
offered: the greater the income, the larger London, E15 4LZ.
the proportion available to support poorer Email: [email protected]
students. This would involve some form of
means testing. I envisage two forms of
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 18 No. 1, Spring 2012 41
John Radford
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