ERIC EJ906148: Examining African American and Caucasian Interaction Patterns within Computer-Mediated Communication Environments

2009·0.5 MB·English

by  ERIC

Examining African American and Caucasian
2 Interaction Patterns Within Computer-Mediated
Communication Environments
s
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u Al Bellamy and M. C. Greenfield
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gy Abstract seems to be a parallel need for research that
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ol This study explored the extent to which stu- explores social psychological dynamics occur-
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c dent emotion management factors and normative ring within the inchoate and amorphous struc-
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of orientation (belief that chat rooms have normative ture of computer-mediated communication
al standards of conduct similar to face-to-face inter- environments. This type of research is expected
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ur action) circumscribe the sending of hostile mes- to provide a broader perspective of Internet
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J sages within electronic relay chat rooms on the behavior than the previous descriptive studies
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T Internet. A questionnaire survey collected data of Internet utilization.
from 114 undergraduate and graduate students
Purpose of Article
from a large university in southeastern Michigan.
In this article, the authors discuss findings
The results of the survey revealed statistically
pertaining to the ways in which Blacks and
significant differences between African American
Whites differ in perceptions and communication
and Caucasian chat room users in terms of how
behaviors as they participate in Relay Chat
the emotion management factors of shame, guilt,
Rooms (RCR). ARCR includes a group of
and embarrassment affect communication. The
people and mass communication technology
normative orientation of the chat room users was
in which users send and receive text-based
shown to have an inverse relationship regarding
messages. The time delay of these computer-
the flaming messages between both ethnic
mediated messages can be nearly instantaneous
groups. This article describes how these factors
or a “real- time” text interchange (Walther, et
are influenced bygender and ethnicity/gender.
al., 1994; December,1996). In comparison to
Findings regarding the perceptions of racism
studies that merelydescribe Internet utilization,
within electronic chat rooms are also discussed.
this study’s goal is to explain the variances
Introduction found among Blacks and Whites for these vari-
The utilization of information technology, ables, utilizing social psychological frameworks
such as the Internet and its ancillaries,- includ- as a conceptual guideline. The researchers will
ing the World Wide Web, is increasinglybecom- primarily examine communication differences
ing an icon symbolizing economic and social between Blacks and Whites with focused atten-
well being, technological literacy, and employa- tion given to the sending of “flaming” messages
bility in the information age. Its implications for in relaychat rooms.
social and political transformation and liberation
have been clearly identified in the media and Flamingis a term that refers to the sending
academia. Due to the cue less structure of the of hostile messages (Lee, 2005; Orton-Johnson,
Internet, many have predicted that it would be a 2007). The absence of informational cues per-
mechanism to ameliorate the social inequalities taining to one’s identity within the chat room
commonlyassociated with race, gender, physical environment has prompted manyauthors to
handicaps, and social class (Connolly, Jessup, & allege that the Internet fosters a social context
Valacich, 1990; Sproull & Kiesler,1986, in which conventional normative standards that
Wasserman & Richmond-Abbott, 2005). typically circumscribe behavior found in face-
to-face interactions has been relaxed (Kiesler,
With the exception of studies that cite the Siegel & McGuire, 1984). It has been further
statistical disparity between African Americans alleged that the suppression of normative stan-
and Caucasians in Internet utilization (Nielsen dards of conduct will create a social condition
Media Research, 1997; Novak, Hoffman, & where individuals feel free to engage in antiso-
Venkatesh, 1997) few researchers have system- cial communications such as flaming, sending
aticallyexamined the ways in which ethnicity hostile messages, and expressing anger.
influences behavioral differences found in
cyberspace. Given the saliency that has been Verylittle research has been done on the
recently attached to Internet accessibility among influence that social psychological factors have
the Black population (Clinton, 1997), there on flaming behavior and the moderating
influence that ethnicity and gender may have on Thus, the focal point of analyses here is
this relationship within the “cues-filtered-out” rolebehavior (Stryker, 1987).
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(Culnan & Markus, 1987) context of electronic
chat rooms. More specifically, given that flam- 3. Definition of the Situation – pertains to Th
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ing and other hostile-type behaviors do indeed the covert cognitive process of determin- J
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occur in computer-mediated communications ing the nature of a particular social situ- ur
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(CMC), s we explore the following general ation in terms of its role expectations al
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research questions: and normative standards. By mentally f
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defining the situation, the individuals are ec
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1. To what extent do differences in commu- able to present themselves in “socially n
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nication behaviors (such as sending hos- acceptable” ways (Goffman, 1959). The log
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tile messages and expressing anger) exist cognitive landscape of the situation is S
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between Blacks and White RCR users, influenced by the symbols contained in d
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and what are the differences by gender both the situation itself and the culturally s
within and between each of these derived mental pictures that the person
groups? has internalized.
2. Inwhat ways do social psychological 4. Mind – is a concept that represents the
factors (such as emotions) affect CMC internalization of the structure and
communications and to what extent is processes of the factors described previ-
this relationship moderated by ethnicity ously. Within this context, mind is the
and gender? epistemological expression of form and
process. However, the mind as described
Theoretical Framework of Paper
here is not a static construct as referred
The principal conceptual scheme of this
to in various psychoanalytical frame-
paper is symbolic interaction (SI). Symbolic
works. Rather it is an entity that is
interaction is a social psychological approach
dynamically homeostatic with emergent
(within sociology) to studying the ways in which
social processes. As such, the study of
humans create and use symbols in formulating
individual identity takes the form of ana-
social organization (Blumer,1969; Goffman,
lyzing the ways in which the self simul-
1959; Mead,1934). Central to this framework
taneously maintains and creates itself in
are the following concepts:
varying situational contexts.
1. Interaction – “Symbolic interactionism
This conceptual framework was selected for
concentrates on the interactive processes
this article because its core tenets appear to be a
bywhich humans form social relation-
heuristic guideline for analyzing ethnic and gen-
ships” (Turner, 1998, p. 364). Most
der behavioral differences on the Internet whose
important, interaction is delineated as
peculiar cultural differences are expected to
the focal point for analyzing the nature
reflect differences in role-taking and situation-
of social organization.
defining processes. Frameworks similar to the
interactionist approach that are used to examine
2. Taking the Role of the Other – is an
behavioral processes within the CMC context
interaction process bywhich the individ-
consist of sociocognitivetheoryWalther et al.,
ual’s perception of self is obtained
1982; (Kern & Warschauer, 2000; LaRose,
through interpreting the expectations of
2001) and sociocultural theory (Block, 2003;
others in a given social situation. The
Brignall & Van Valey, 2005). Furthermore, the
self, then, is defined as a social self,
theory’s propositions concerning the dynamic
which could consist of a specific other
interrelation between structure and mind allude
or a generalized other,which consists of
to the idea that these processes mayhave a dif-
abroader community of attitudes such as
ferent epistemology within cyberspace as com-
one’s culture. Successful interpretation
pared to face-to-face communication platforms.
among “actors” in a given situation is
what enables communication to take
Relaychat rooms on the Internet represent a
place. An emergent “pattern” of such
very distinct type of situation to analyze com-
communication is what imparts a sem-
munications because of the absence of symbols
blance of “structure” to the interaction.
that characterize traditional face-to-face
communication. Subsequently, some authors In order to operationalize the concept of
have predicted that communication in cyber- emotion management, the emotive theory of
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space would reduce differences in cultural (i.e., Shott (1979), which delineates specific emotion
es ethnicity and gender) communication styles types, will be drawn upon. Taking the role of the
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u (Connolly, Jessup, & Valacich, 1990). However, other is the focal point in Shott’s emotion man-
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symbolic interaction theorists would argue that agement schema. “Much role-taking is reflexive
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o people do not leave their culture at home when in that the individual has an internal conversa-
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hn faced with new situations, such as CMC. Rather, tion with self as an object, seen and evaluated
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Te they define novel situations according to cultur- from the perspective of specific and generalized
of ally learned definitions of the situation (Blumer, others. In this evaluation process, emotions are
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n 1969; Shott, 1979). SI proponents would pro- aroused and labeled; and if these emotions are
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o pose that individuals have covert conversations negative, they mobilize the individual to adjust
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e with “self” as they define the CMC interaction behavior” (Turner, 1994. p20). Shott (1979)
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episodes. If this is the case, differences in com- delineates six emotion management factors:
munication patterns are expected both between guilt, shame, embarrassment, empathy, vanity,
African Americans and Caucasians and accord- and pride. Of these, the first three appear to be
ing to gender, because each group has its own relevant to the present discussion, and brief
unique cultural orientation that creates differ- definitions follow:
ences in how its members define situations.
1. Guilt – Guilt is a feeling that emerges
Examining whether African Americans and when a person acknowledges that her/his
Caucasians differ on such things as flaming behavior is incongruent with the norma-
behavior will indicate whether or not CMC is tive and moral standards within a specif-
reducing cultural differences in interaction ic social situation.
behavior.Using the symbolic interaction con-
ceptual framework, these researchers will seek 2. Shame – Relates to an individual’s judg-
to explore if African Americans and Caucasians ment of self relative to situational expec-
define the CMC environment in different ways tations (Ausubel, 1955). Shame occurs
and to determine if any such differences lead to when after taking the role of the other,
different tendencies in interactive behavior. It is the person learns that the other’spercep-
awell-documented idea that African Americans tion of the behavior is not congruent to
and Caucasians differ in cultural orientations. her/his idealized image of self.
These differences are conceptualized within this
3. Embarrassment – Is a feeling that exists
article to refer to differences in the ways each
“when an individual’s presentation of a
group maydefine the cyberspace situation.
situational identity is seen bythe person
The Sociology of Emotion and others as inept” (Turner, 1998).
The sociology of emotion (Heise, 1977;
Each of these variables, which are referred
Hochschild, 1979; Kemper, 1991; Ridgeway,
to as emotion management factors, will be tested
1982; Hochschild,1992; Shott, 1979; Stryker,
in terms of the degree to which they influence
1987; Turner, 1994) is a symbolic interaction
flaming behaviors among African American and
approach which postulates that emotions influ-
Caucasian relaychat room users and among
ence the interaction process. Emotions are
males and females. Anegative correlation
attested to as sociologicallyrelevant phenomena
between these factors and the interaction vari-
because particular types of emotions as
ables would indicate that theydo indeed circum-
expressed toward others are moderated by
scribe antisocial behavior within chat rooms.
situational and normative constraints. More
This is the expected relationship between these
important, emotions are considered as factors
variables.
that circumscribe various types of behaviors
within the context of particular social situations.
Methodology
Emotions will be framed in this article as
Participants
emotion managementfactors. This framework
Data for this study was collected from 114
is particularly relevant to the present study given
undergraduate and graduate students in a rela-
the attention to the management of emotions
tively large university in southeast Michigan.
within the context of emotional intelligence
The undergraduate students were enrolled in a
(Salovey&Mayer, 1990).
technology and society-type class, which satis- Shott’s emotion management factors.
fies a basic studies requirement at the university. Guilt - “I feel guilty if I say something to
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Subsequently, the sample population represents offend someone in a chat room.”
awide spectrum of undergraduate degree pro- Th
Shame - “I feel a sense of shame when e
grams and career orientations within the univer- J
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sity. This improves upon the generalizability of someone in a chat room points out to me that ur
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the sample (for the university population). my messages are inappropriate.” al
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Afull sample was taken among students Embarrassment - “There have been times ec
who identified themselves as chat room users that I have felt embarrassed in a chat room hn
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(for both undergraduate and graduate students). because of how I presented myself.” log
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The graduate students were enrolled in an inter- S
Moderator factors. tu
disciplinary technology program. Each student d
Amoderator variable is a categorical factor ie
completed a 104-item questionnaire (during s
that is examined to determine the influence that it
class time) that measured a variety of Internet
has on the relationshipbetween the independent
and chat room utilization factors. (There were
and criterion factors. In this article, we attempt
two Asian respondents and one Hispanic respon-
to determine if the correlations between the
dent in this survey. They are not included in the
emotion management factors, cybernorm, and
present analyses).
Chart 1. The following chart presents an overview of the demographic
characteristics of the sample:
Demographic Structure of Study
Ethnicity Gender Ethnicity/Gender College Level
B W M F BM BF WM WF F S J S Gr
36 73 64 45 18 18 46 27 37 35 20 14 3
the communication variables are altered within
Instruments criterion factors.
categories of user’s ethnicity, gender, and
The dependent variables within this paper
ethnicity/gender.
pertain to the sending of antisocial messages in
chat rooms (interaction). Each variable and its
Ethnicity – African American and
measurement are as follows:
Caucasian sample populations.
Flaming.“I send flaming (hostile) messages.”
Gender/ethnicity – African American male,
female and Caucasian male, female categories
The tendency for sending hostile mes-
(ethnicity and gender ethnicity are also used as
sages while in chat rooms as compared to
independent factors).
face-to-face communications: “I am more
likelyto send hostile messages in chat rooms
Statistical Procedures
than in face-to-face communications” (This
The statistical procedures for analyzing the
variable will be referred to as “Hostility” within
data are mean comparisons and Pearson correla-
the statistical analyses).
tion. The Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) was the statistical software
Perception of displaying anger in chat
used for this analysis.
rooms.“It is more appropriate to display anger
in chat rooms than in face-to-face communica- Results
tion” (Will be referred to as “Anger”).
Mean Comparisons of Interaction Variables by
Ethnicity and Gender/Ethnicity
Independent Variables:
Table 1 illustrates mean differences in the
Cybernorm.“I believe that there is an
communication variables found between ethnic
unwritten code of conduct that people must fol-
and gender groups, and ethnicity/gender.Very
low in chat rooms.”
little difference was revealed between African
Americans and Caucasians according to their mean value on anger than do females. Further,
propensity for sending hostile messages in chat the African American male/female difference is
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rooms. The most significant differences appear significant at the .05 level, whereas the
es among gender and ethnicity/gender categories. Caucasian male/female does not reveal signifi-
di
u To begin with, males are more prone to send cance (p=.26).
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flaming messages than are females (p=.006).
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o This finding holds true within each category of Differences on whether or not RCR users
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hn ethnicity for the Caucasian male/female compar- believe that there are norms of conduct operative
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Te ison (p=.07) and the African American in chat rooms are shown within and between each
of male/female comparison (p=.01). There is also of the groups. None of these differences, howev-
nal aslightly higher difference between the African er, were found to be statistically significant.
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o American male/female comparison (.95) than
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The next tasks were to determine the extent
e the Caucasian male/female comparison (.63).
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T to which the variances in chat room behavior
African American males show the highest mean
can be explained by the social psychological
on flaming among all of the groups.
factors of cybernorms and emotion management
Very little difference is shown among each factors and then to ascertain the moderator
of the groups for the hostility variable. However, effect of ethnicity on these relationships.
Table 1. Mean Comparisons of Interaction Variables by Ethnicity, Gender, and
Ethnicity/Gender
once again, the data indicates a larger mean Correlation Analyses for Cybernorms and
difference between African American males and Interaction Variables
females (.32) than between Caucasian males and Table 2 presents the correlations between
females (.06), and African American males show cybernorm and the interaction variables by
the highest mean on this variable. Neither differ- ethnicity and ethnicity/gender.For the entire
ence, however,revealed statistical significance sample, cybernorm is significantly correlated
(p=.88 and .46, respectively). with only the flaming variable, and the negative
sign indicates that it operates as a constraining
For the anger variable, very little difference factor to sending flaming messages in chat
is shown according to ethnicity or gender, but rooms.
there are larger differences shown by
ethnicity/gender.Also, the direction of the The same finding is found within each of
differences was different for each ethnicity/ the ethnicity and gender categories. Cybernorm
gender category. Among Caucasian RCR users, is more strongly correlated with sending flaming
females have a higher mean value than do messages for males than females, and for
males. The opposite is true for the African Caucasian males in particular. Stronger correla-
American users, where males have a higher tions are shown for Caucasians, both male and
female, than for African Americans on the factors that would circumvent the sending of
flaming variable. antisocial behaviors, such as flaming. This has
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been the commonplace proposition relative to
Relatively weak correlations are found face-to-face communication situations (Goffman, Th
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between cybernorm and the hostility variable 1974). Our concern here is to test whether this J
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among all of the categories. The only strong proposition holds true for electronic communica- ur
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correlation (in the expected negative direction) tion platforms. al
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between cybernorm and anger is revealed f
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among African American females. The weak correlations shown in Table 3 ec
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between the emotion management factors and n
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Based upon the moderately strong inverse interaction variables for the population as a log
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relationships between cybernorm and flaming, whole, does not support this proposition in S
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the viewpoint that one’s definition of the situa- relation to relay chat room environments. ud
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tion affects behavior is confirmed, and it is con- However, in examining the moderator influence s
firmed in the expected direction. of ethnicity upon these relationships, a different
and interesting finding is revealed. As shown in
Analyzing the Impact of Emotion Management
Table 4, there are moderate correlations between
on RCR Behavior
two of the emotion management factors (guilt
Table 2. Correlations between Cybernorm and Interaction Variables for Entire
Sample, and by Ethnicity, Gender, and Ethnicity/Gender
CCyybbeerrnnoorrmm
*p<.05
**p < .01
and shame) and the flaming variable for
In attempting to present oneself in an appro-
Caucasian RCR users, and although the
priate manner during face-to-face encounters, a
correlation between flaming and embarrassment
person’s concern for not feeling guilty, not being
is small, it is nevertheless in the anticipated
ashamed, or not being embarrassed are seen as
Table 3. Zero Order Correlations between The Interaction and Emotion
Management Variables
*p<.05
Table 4. Zero-order Correlations between Emotion Management and Interaction
Variables within Ethnicity Categories
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*p<.05
**p < .01
Table 5. Correlations between Interaction and Emotion Management Variables
by Caucasian Male and Female Categories
*p<.05
**p < .01
inverse direction. This indicates that these factors Comparatively, each of the correlations for
do indeed operate as emotion management fac- the same variables among African American
tors within computer-mediated communication (Table 6) users is positive, indicating that the
environments, but onlyamong the Caucasian emotion factors operate as interactive, rather
users for this sample. Table 5 shows that this than as suppressivefactors. Furthermore, these
pattern is maintained among both Caucasian are moderately strong correlations when com-
males and females, although stronger correla- pared to those found within the Caucasian popu-
tions are revealed among Caucasian females. lation sample.
Table 6. Correlations between Interaction and Emotion Management Variables
by African American Male and Female Categories
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N=36 T
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InteractionVariables r
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Flaming Hostility Anger T
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Ethnicity/Gender (African American) lo
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N=18 n = 18 n = 18 n = 18 n = 18 n=18 St
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Male Female Male Female Male Female d
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Emotion s
Management
Guilt .180 .472 -.255 .723** .021 -.043
Shame -.027 .700 .023 .379 -079 -.166
Embar. .189 .510 -.482* .092 -.143 -.183
*p<.05
**p < .01
This is a very surprising, yet interesting chat room situation and the expectations of the
finding. These extreme statistical differences assumed Caucasian role from the perspective
implicate that African Americans and of other Caucasian roles?
Caucasians are defining the CMC situation in
different ways. A possible explanation of this Given that the acting out of this assumed
finding as it relates to symbolic interaction theo- role does not contain the complete genome of
ryis that each group engages in different role the Caucasian culture, there is a real likelihood
taking and cognitiverehearsal processes, which that some perceptions would be erroneous,
are affected bythe unique cultural experiences thereby causing behavior that is not isomorphic
of the two groups. to that group’s actual chat room expectations. In
short, African American users, in comparison to
More specifically,African Americans, who Caucasian participants, maybe defining the chat
have historically experienced more prejudice in room situation as an appropriate place for
social encounters than Caucasians, (with other expressing hostile feelings, such as flaming. For
Caucasians) may be putting more emphasis on example, “it is something that Caucasian people
chat rooms as a “liberator” of traditional social do, I am in a Caucasian environment, and there-
inequities Kiecolt, 1997). Electronic communi- fore, I should behave (role acting) accordingly.”
cations suppress identity traits, such as race, Furthermore, they also may conceptualize the
enabling a person to fullyparticipate in the Caucasian role as one that has this expectation,
communication act, not as an African American where in essence this may not be the case. This
person per se, but as the individual or role that idea appears to be supported by the higher mean
the user perceivesis the represented group. scores on the cybernorm variable among
Subsequently, when African American users are Caucasians in comparison to that of African
taking the role of the other within this electronic Americans, which was reported previously in
context, theymaybe taking the role of the this article. The lower correlations between
Caucasian participants from an assumed cybernormand the interaction variables among
Caucasian role, as compared to an African African Americans in comparison to Caucasians
American role as would be more likelythe case described previouslyalso givesupportto this
inan face-to-face (FTF ) situation. The question proposition. The positive direction of the corre-
to be raised in this instance would be the follow- lations is maintained for both African American
ing: How does an African American person males and females. However, these positive cor-
performing a Caucasian role define both the relations are much stronger for African
American females than for African American behavioral dynamics. Moreover, in the future
males. This finding indicates that cultural researchers should continue to examine the
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dynamics are occurring that are peculiar to the within-group variance among African
es African American female culture. Americans, according to gender and other
di
u factors (Schuman et al., 1997; Carter, DeSole,
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S Our attempt to explain this dubious finding Sicalides, Glass, & Tyler, 1997).
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o from a symbolic interactionist perspective is
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n merely theoretical conjecture. We intend to con- Along the same lines, the interesting find-
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e duct further research on this particular CMC ing that emotion management factors circum-
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of phenomenon. scribe the sending of hostile RCR messages
al among Caucasian users and not those of African
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u Americans raises some intriguing issues about
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J Several important social psychological con-
e identity formulation (or reformulation) and com-
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T clusions can be drawn from this study. The first puter-mediated communications. It is important
is that the extent to which hostile type commu-
to consider the epistemological implications of
nications is displayed in a virtual communica-
CMC interaction processes. The mind, as con-
tion environment is affected by the user’s nor-
ceptualized within the symbolic interaction
mative orientation. The perception that norms
framework, is the energic outcome of the recur-
exist in relay chat rooms was shown to be a con-
sive interfacing of form and process (social
straining factor for sending hostile-type commu-
structure). That is to say, a person becomes what
nications in RCR among each of the categories
he/she does (interactions). These interactions,
of ethnicity and gender.This finding negates
when developed as a pattern, become the struc-
recent claims that characterize electronic com-
ture or condition that gives direction to the indi-
munications as relatively normless. The results
vidual. Most important, from the perspective of
of this investigation suggest that individuals take
identity development, the person internalizes
with them culturally learned symbols of conduct
this structure, and this internalized perception of
to situations, including emerging social systems,
social reality becomes the basis of that person’s
such as those found on the Internet that have not
mind or consciousness. The format of virtual
yet reached organizational homeostasis. From a
communication enables users to more freely
historical perspective, electronic communica-
define their symbolic context, and this will sub-
tions such as relaychat rooms, because of their
sequentlyallowpeople to present themselves in
faceless architecture, are expected to make revo-
various ways (; Tanis & Postmes, 2007; Tynes,
lutionary changes in social organization at the
2007).
societal level. Although this may indeed be true,
this study clearlyindicates that such changes Webelieve that the drastic differences
will not be completely divorced of traditional between African Americans and Caucasians on
mental categories of social order. These conven- the emotion management factors allude to the
tional categories of images and thought will idea that chat rooms are serving different episte-
serve as a mental map for traversing the land- mological purposes for the two groups. This
scape of the newcyberculture. This means that idea is supported by a study by Weiser (2001)
symbolic categories of conventional racism and that revealed that processes such as flaming are
sexism will also be copied and pasted within the driven by social psychological factors pertaining
so-called newsocial structure along with norma- to the needs that the Internet serves for the
tivestandards of conduct. users.
Second, although cybernorms were shown From a practical standpoint, it may mean
to influence CMC behavior,the degree of its that such recent psychological phenomena, such
affect varies according to ethnic and gender as Internet addiction should be approached by
groupings, which reflect differences in cultural psychological practitioners with the” personal
orientation within these groups. Such variance epistemology” of the client in mind. Although
supports the notion that the relatively one- the design of this research project does not
dimensional analyses of CMC dynamics that is delineate the particular aspects of such an epis-
currently commonplace should be replaced by temological model, the profound differences that
more systematic research strategies that attempt African Americans and Caucasians revealed for
to explore how a larger number of factors the emotion management factors in this study
covaries in relation to explaining CMC suggest that ethnicity would be a valuable
starting point or a component for its develop- Caucasian CMC utilization. Future studies along
ment. As the diversity within the data among these lines should be conducted with a different
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ethnic and gender categories points out, authors and wider sampling population (i.e., non-colle-
must be careful not to reify CMC technology giate population) to determine the generalizabil- Th
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with deterministic powers as espoused in the ity of the patterns shown among college students J
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constructivist perspective inherent within previ- in this present study. Studies that strategically ur
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ous studies and theoretical postulations. Rather, address the findings that relate to identity devel- al
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the mind is a very dynamic construct, wherein opment among African American users should f
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there is the potential for a lexicon of variants in be conducted to create a more comprehensive c
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consciousness within the boundaries of cultural- understanding of this dynamic as it occurs with- o
lo
ly derived symbols that can be created by the in the context of electronic communication. g
y
individual. The individual here is not seen as a S
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receptacle of social and cultural ideas, however, Dr. Al Bellamy is a professor of Technology die
her or she is understood as an entity who has the Management in the School of Technology s
ability to define and redefine her/his situational Studies at Eastern Michigan University,
context (Savicki et al., 1998). CMC, particularly Ypsilanti.
as it pertains to African Americans, makes this
process a more viable possibility. Mr. M. C. Greenfield is an professor of
Electrical Engineering Technology in the School
Finally, the results of this study should be
of Engineering Technology at Eastern Michigan
considered a preliminary investigation into the
University,Ypsilanti
differences between African American and
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