ERIC EJ1146466: The Case for Pedagogical Action Research in Psychology Learning and Teaching

2014·0.15 MB·English

by  ERIC

The case for pedagogical action research
in psychology learning and teaching
Lin Norton
I
T IS JUST OVER 12 years since Psychology typical learning and teaching problem in
Teaching Review’s first Special Issue on psychology.
action research in psychology. In the guest
editorial for that issue I suggested that peda- Sam is a chartered psychologist who has
gogical action research can be controversial, recently been appointed to teach counselling
and that for some academic psychologists it psychology to third-year students. She has taken
appears to be no more than curriculum the university’s Postgraduate Certificate in
development rather than ‘real’ research Learning and Teaching in Higher Education
(Norton, 2002). I wonder how much has (PGCLTHE), a generic course accredited by the
changed since then. It is still difficult to find Higher Education Academy, and is now in her
many studies in the published literature second year of full-time lecturing. Sam’s
about systematically investigating aspects of students are disappointed that by taking her
our own teaching psychology practice counselling psychology course they cannot actu-
through an action research approach, ally get BPS accreditation as it is not one of the
although there are more sources that use key core courses. Rather than take the route to char-
word phrases like ‘reflective teaching’ and tered counselling psychologist most of the
‘professional practice’. students are beginning to think of other ways of
In this paper I am going to consider why becoming a recognised counsellor. During the
this might be the case. I intend to argue for course of her teaching Sam gradually becomes
a more inclusive approach to pedagogical aware that there is a subtle but palpable rejec-
research which enables us, as psychology tion by students of psychological approaches to
academics, to think more critically about counselling and more of a generalised ‘talking
how we teach and how we might improve our helps’ approach. To counteract this unforeseen
students’ learning. turn of events, Sam designs her assessment
tasks and assessment criteria to more fully
Apologia require recognised psychological theories and
I am aware that I am breaking with ‘tradi- methodologies, but to her dismay, the students
tional scientific discourse’ when writing this appear to be ‘going through’ the motions and
paper but I have a specific aim in so doing. paying lip service to the assessment criteria
Action research has a long and chequered rather than genuinely engaging with applying
history and it sits uneasily alongside the psychological theories to counselling issues.
scientific approach. Most psychologists and
indeed most readers of Psychology Teaching So what would you advise Sam to do?
Review will be familiar with the objective You might suggest that she consults with
passive third person voice when reading fellow psychology lecturers to see if they have
journal articles, but one of the avowed inten- experienced similar problems. There is a
tions of action research is to challenge the growing realisation of the power of profes-
status quo. So instead of starting traditionally sional networking (Pataraia et al., 2014;
with a literature review followed by some Vaessen, van den Beemt & de Laat, 2014).
critical pointers, I am beginning with a hypo- Alternatively you might advise her to draw
thetical vignette depicting what could be a on her own experience from what she has
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 20 No 2, Winter 2014 5
© The British Psychological Society
Lin Norton
learned on the PGCLTHE course and design shrink from as psychologists, as academics
even more focused assignments. A third and as educators. I will return to this later
option might be to suggest that she invites when I discuss praxis.
counselling psychologists as visiting speakers Let us imagine that instead of any of the
to talk to her students and hopefully stimu- above options, Sam takes an action research
late more engagement with psychology. All approach. This would afford her a very
of these possible solutions are interventions different set of insights which would poten-
and if Sam were to carry out any of them she tially affect both her own teaching practice
would, as a good conscientious teacher, be and her students’ learning experience. I do
acting on certain assumptions about what is not think I am overstating it to argue that
wrong and what needs fixing. She might pedagogical action research might be trans-
then design some sort of ‘before and after’ formative in the way Sam thinks about
measure to see if her students improved psychology as a subject, her students as
following the intervention. Such an learners and herself as a university teacher in
approach would be a classic piece of peda- the UK higher education system. In the rest
gogical research (I have carried out many of this paper, I want to explain why.
similar studies myself) but sometimes the
resulting improvements can be disap- What is (pedagogical) action research?
pointing because researching in educational Pedagogical action research is is a specific
contexts is complicated. What is demon- form of pedagogical research and a specific
strably measurable may be only a pale form of action research. Pedagogical action
shadow of a difference or improvement in research is carried out in an educational
desired learning. There is much in the liter- context (usually but not exclusively in
ature about assessment and authentic tertiary education) by ourselves as academics
learning and how in taking the psychometric who teach and/or support student learning.
approach to assessment we sometimes assess It has the express aim of improving our own
what is measurable rather than what is mean- teaching and assessment practices and our
ingful (Eisner, 1993; Orr, 2005). The same students’ learning:
point applies when attempting to evaluate ‘The fundamental purpose of pedagogical
the effects of an intervention using academic action research is to systematically investigate
performance measures. Alternatives such as one’s own teaching/learning facilitation
student satisfaction questionnaires which are practice, with the dual aim of improving that
commonly used in pedagogical intervention practice and contributing to theoretical
or innovation studies are similarly missing knowledge in order to benefit student learning.’
the reality of contextualised and complex (Norton, 2009, p.59)
changes in student learning. However, action research is not without its
Nevertheless, taking an evidence-based critics. One of the reasons why it is viewed
approach is seen as an important way with some suspicion is due to the fact that it
forward for educational research and prac- is very difficult to define, and there appear to
tice, indeed it is one of the fundamental be a number of different ‘camps’ with their
tenets of the Higher Education Academy own philosophical and moral imperatives.
(HEA Strategic Plan 2012–2016) but we Some commonly cited definitions include
need to think carefully about what an the following:
evidence-based approach to learning and l The ‘classic’ definition of action research.
teaching actually means. Biesta, (2007) has ‘Action research is simply a form of self-reflective
put forward the argument that such an enquiry undertaken by participants in social
approach ignores the moral and political situations in order to improve the rationality
consequences of educational research. This and justice of their own practices, their
is difficult terrain but one we should not understanding of these practices, and the
6 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 20 No. 2, Winter 2014
Pedagogical action research
situations in which the practices are carried she might decide to carry out a pedagogical
out.’ (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, p.162) action research study in which she discusses
l Practitioneraction research. with her students their reasoning and
‘Action research is a term which refers to a perceptions of the role of psychology in this
practical way of looking at your own work to field. The insights she gets from these discus-
check that it is as you would like it to be. sions (research interviews) might lead her to
Because action research is done by you, the change the way she is teaching while the
practitioner, it is often referred to as practitioner research is still ongoing and in the middle of
based research; and because it involves you the course. I am aware that such curriculum
thinking about and reflecting on your work, it and assessment changes often are all but
can also be called a form of self-reflective impossible mid-course due to quality
practice.’ (McNiff, 2002, p.6). enhancement or quality assurance stipula-
l Participatoryaction research. tions, but I have always believed that we do
‘It seeks to bring together action and reflection, have a certain amount of autonomy in how
theory and practice, in participation with we teach our students. It might be that Sam
others, in the pursuit of practical solutions to consults her students and together they
issues of pressing concern to people, and more organise a debate where clinical psychology
generally the flourishing of individual persons is pitted against talking therapy which might
and their communities.’ (Reason & then rekindle their understandings of the
Bradbury, 2005, p.1) importance of evidence-based theory-prac-
To further complicate matters, action tice links in an applied setting such as coun-
research is not a single research approach selling. This would be a form of participatory
but a broad umbrella term for what is actu- action research where students become co-
ally a wide range of research paradigms and researchers. Of course, this is a hypothetical
processes, each with its own philosophies situation and would be only one of
and rationales. While action research is numerous ways in which Sam might react.
generally attributed to Kurt Lewin (a well- The course of action research cannot be
known American psychologist in the 1940s) predicted from the outset. It is a process that
it has evolved since then with different has much in common with complexity
emphases depending on the researcher’s theory where what happens in action
purpose. Historically there have been two research is emergent, and non-linear
distinct traditions: (Phelps & Hase, 2002). Some have called it
1. Education-oriented linking research to messy research and indeed Cook (2009,
improvement of practice (British); p.227) has suggested that mess is essential:
2. Action research linking research to ‘Investigations into the ‘messy area’, the
bringing about social change (American). interface between the known and the nearly
known, between knowledge-in-use and tacit
Improving practice knowledge as yet to be useful, reveal the ‘messy
What is crucial about action research in area’ as a vital element for seeing, disrupting,
general and pedagogical action research in analysing, learning, knowing and changing.’
particular is that it is a way of doing research For those of us who have been educated in a
and acting to change a situation at the same scientific approach to research, this naturally
time (the interaction of practice with seems well out of our comfort zone and not
theory). The key question referred to by ‘proper’ research at all. It was many years
Whitehead (1989) is ‘How do I improve my before I could move away from what had
practice?’ If we return to Sam and her been inculcated in me as a psychology
problem with students who appear to be undergraduate and then as an academic
rejecting psychological approaches to psychologist, to experimenting with these
people who have emotional difficulties, then ‘looser’ ways of carrying out research into
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 20 No. 2, Winter 2014 7
Lin Norton
my teaching and assessment practices. the status quo, to the pragmatic epistemo-
I continue to struggle but I am increasingly logical position of Hammond (2013, p.613)
aware of the rich insights and understand- who suggests that this is particularly appro-
ings that working in the ‘messy area’ can priate for educational action research
bring. because:
‘…pragmatism tells us that what we know is
Methodology provisional and arrived at through a
Because action research is not a specific transaction between agent and environment.
method of data collection, choosing our Action research finds further methodological
method, which can be anything from posi- support in the pragmatic position that
tivist experimental design to autoethnog- knowledge is generated within indeterminate
raphy (Starr, 2010) should be based and situations, requires habits of reflection and
justified to suit our own specific learning and analysis and results in warranted assertions
teaching context. Often, pedagogical action which attend to the social and moral
research sits comfortably within a multi- consequences of action.’
methodological space, but that does not Praxis is a fusion of theory and practice; it is
mean that rigour is sacrificed (Kember, seen as theory plus action. According to
2000). It is important that we make our Tierney and Sallee (2008), praxis refers to a
subjective decision-making, collection of particular philosophy used to guide and
data and interpretation completely trans- conduct research. It involves the community
parent. As such, we should include reflexive or group under study in the research process
accounts of our own enquiry and the and has the explicit goal to empower
research process we have chosen as well as marginalised peoples and help them chal-
reflecting on our pedagogical practice. Peda- lenge their oppression. As the Freire Insti-
gogical action research is not just reflective tute proclaims:
practice, however, nor is it simply a form of ‘It is not enough for people to come together in
curriculum development (typical of a schol- dialogue in order to gain knowledge of their
arly approach to learning and teaching). social reality. They must act together upon their
It becomes real research when we open up environment in order critically to reflect upon
our investigations and findings to peer their reality and so transform it through further
scrutiny and review (informally in depart- action and critical reflection.’
mental or institutional based seminars, and This might seem far-fetched in the confines
formally in conferences and peer-reviewed of university education but we only have to
journal papers). think about the current emphasis on
In writing this paper, I am aware that to widening participation, welcoming diversity
some extent I am mirroring the non-linear and propounding inclusivity. Is it too big a
approach of action research by moving back- step to think of disadvantaged students as
wards and forwards in what is sometimes oppressed by our current education systems?
conceptualised as overlapping cycles, as Even if we disagree with the term of ‘oppres-
I want to return here to its underlying philo- sion’, we may well be interested in working
sophical rationale (in terms of research, alongside our students as co-researchers in a
pedagogy and more widely to the social more equal relationship in which we as
world itself). There are as many different teachers can more clearly understand the
schools of thought about the underpinning students’ experience as learners. Bovill and
theories of action research as there are Bulley (2011) have done some impressive
methods, ranging from the praxis-inspired work with students as active participants in
philosophy as propounded by Paulo Freire curriculum design and there is an increasing
(a Brazilian educator 1921–1997) with its number of papers that report research
emphasis on the political and challenging projects with students as co-researchers
8 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 20 No. 2, Winter 2014
Pedagogical action research
(see, for example, Allin, 2014; Butcher & integrated with mainstream psychology, and
Maunder, 2013; Hill et al., 2013). There is indeed it was seen as one of the weaker areas
also a paper in this Special Issue which has of UK psychology. There is clearly more work
been co-written by students, (Lintern et al., to be done in this respect. Closer links
2014). The advantage of students as change between educational research and main-
agents through being researchers includes stream psychology research would bring
giving them a voice, although this does not useful synergies and multiple understand-
always mean empowering them to change ings which would certainly promote a wider
unfair educational systems as the Freire Insti- acceptance of pedagogical action research.
tute urges. Welikala and Atkin (2014) found In terms of methodology, evidence-based
that the experience of making multiple changes to learning and teaching fit well
meanings of the research data can bring with our training as psychologists; we believe
about an epistemic shift for students having in a scientific approach, our methodological
gone through the process. However, they skills set help us to feel comfortable in that
also point out some of the challenges when area, however, evidence-based decisions have
working with students as co-researchers such been critiqued on the premise that what
as the unequal power relationship and the works in one context may well not work in
complexity that attends changing of student another (Cartwright & Hardie,2012). Biesta
identities. (2007) argues that the ‘what works approach’
When I began my involvement with peda- is too simplistic and will not work because of
gogical action research, I was looking to see a need to widen our thinking about the rela-
how I could improve the written feedback tionship between research, policy and prac-
I gave on my psychology students’ essays and tice in education. If we focus just on the
I took a straightforward pedagogical technicalities of finding out what works then
intervention approach (Norton, 2001). we are ignoring the questions of the ends
I designed an intervention where the feed- themselves such as the moral and political
back I gave was one of three types and then questions about what we should see as educa-
I evaluated whether one type of feedback was tionally desirable. Re-reading that early
more effective than the others in terms of research report on feedback, I now see how
students’ self-reported questionnaire limited my action research approach was but
responses to questions about academic self- I also recognise how it was the first step in
esteem, motivation and overall usefulness what has been a long and increasingly adven-
following the feedback; somewhat disap- turous process. For that very reason, I would
pointingly I found no differences. However, not hesitate to welcome positivist research
the reflections that I carried out following within the action research family, and if it
my findings led to modifications in my feed- encourages psychology colleagues to take
back practice as well as to a whole series of those first steps, then that is very much a
further action research cycles. In this very desirable state of affairs. Each one of us
early action research study I clearly aligned makes our own decisions about how far we
myself with the positivist paradigm and never want to go but the process of carrying out
even thought to question it or to see if an pedagogical action research inevitably
alternative paradigm and methodology means we scrutinise our professional prac-
would be a better fit. To do so would have tice more closely.
been a risk and put me at the very margins of Over the years, as I have read and
the discipline, which at that time was not learned more about action research I began
where I saw my career going. According to to find myself moving towards a more praxis-
the International Benchmarking Review of based view where the aim of action research
UK Psychology (2011) educational, applied is not just to find out what works but is to
and organisational psychology is not well- actually question the whole way in which we
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 20 No. 2, Winter 2014 9
Lin Norton
teach psychology and perhaps even the disci- frequently heard comment by academics
pline of psychology itself. This has not come that students are not bothered to collect
overnight, nor am I insensible to the ethical feedback but are only interested in their
and moral difficulties such an approach grades. Many years of research have chal-
poses. Instead I prefer to value and respect lenged this ‘assumption’ and given us a
all approaches to action research whether whole new pedagogy related to the purpose
positivist intervention testing, collaborative of feedback, its timing and the need for it to
or participatory research where students be more dialogic (Boud & Molloy, 2013;
become co-creators of knowledge. Each Nicol, 2010) and yet the assumption persists.
method has something of value to add to our Why?
understanding of learning and teaching To be a real agent of change, our reflec-
both generally and in our own specific disci- tion must be directed outwards not inwards.
pline of psychology and its allied subjects. By this I mean we need to test out our
assumptions and our thinking either with
The link with reflective practice colleagues informally or through the more
One of the reasons why action research may formal processes of peer review. Where peda-
be misunderstood sometimes is that it can gogical action research contributes to reflec-
look as if it is simply a process or a procedure tion is that it enables us to base our
but this is not the case. Following a proce- reflections on a systematic process; it also
dure on its own is not action research; there encourages us to look at the wider context
needs to be some commitment to change and perhaps even question or challenge the
and this is why I find it so appealing. I want status quo (praxis). For example, why do we
to change some aspect of my own practice still commonly use the essay as a typical
based on researching the problem and assignment when assessing psychology
looking for multiple explanations, but at the students? Is it because we have always done it
same time I want to contribute to our knowl- like this, or this is what the external exam-
edge of learning and of teaching. To do this iners expect? What would be the conse-
it is important that I go beyond the actual quences of replacing essays with assignments
research and reflect on my findings in rela- that are more ‘authentic’? Whitelock and
tion to my practice. In pedagogical action Cross (2012, p.6) give examples of authentic
research, a reflective stance is integral and assessments such as ‘a test of how well the
essential. Reflection is not always comfort- student thinks like a practitioner (is ‘in-tune’
able. My favourite and often repeated quote with the disciplinary mind)’ or an assign-
comes from the American philosopher and ment that ‘uses resources taken specifically
educator John Dewey (1859–1952) who said: from real-world case studies or research’. In
‘reflective thinking is always more or less trouble- this way reflection may drive an actual trans-
some… it involves willingness to endure a condi- formation of our assessment perspective.
tion of mental unrest’(Dewey, 1910). I like this
quote very much as it is when things trouble The effects of pedagogical action
us that we begin to look more critically at research on teaching psychology
what we do. This means looking at how we Conventions in how we teach and assess
teach and assess psychology and how our psychology today appear to be remarkably
students learn. Being reflective is in itself of similar to how they were decades ago.
little use if it only serves to reinforce our tacit Hartley (2012, p.7 ) in reflecting on 50 years
assumptions. Common examples of assump- of teaching psychology in a Special Issue of
tions that can exist about students include Psychology Teaching Review suggested ‘…that
they are not as able, motivated, interested, not much has fundamentally changed in our
academically literate or numerate as they approaches to the teaching of psychology…
used to be. A more specific example is the we appear to use the same methods… content is
10 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 20 No. 2, Winter 2014
Pedagogical action research
changed… but we still appear to teach in the same psychology pedagogy. It addresses very prac-
way.’ Entwistle (2012, p.13) in a response tical needs and it is done in order to address
paper added ‘that the additional pressures being a learning and teaching issue that is of rele-
faced by colleagues in all departments makes it vance to us when we are undertaking the
difficult for them to justify the time and effort investigation. Crawford (2010) writes about
required to make significant changes in the the complex interplay between structure
curriculum or experiment with more innovative (the educational context) and agency ( the
ways of teaching.’ It is these two observations individual’s sense of enactment) and high-
that I believe can be addressed by peda- lights how an academic’s professional back-
gogical action research. ground and allegiance to the subject and
subject-related bodies also needs to be
1. Teaching psychology ‘in the same way’ considered when thinking about academics’
The importance of reflective practice was perceptions and attitudes to their own
highlighted by the work of Schön, (1983) professional development.
and is now considered to be a crucial part of In this paper I have argued that carrying
a professional approach to university out pedagogical action research in
teaching (Brockbank & McGill, 1998; Light, psychology draws together reflective practice
Calkins & Cox, 2009). As I suggested earlier, and engagement with the relevant literature
if we simply engage in untried introspective in a way that contributes both to pedagogical
reflection it might lead to erroneous theory and to improving our own learning,
thinking and consequent changes in our teaching and assessment practice. It can also
practice that are not necessarily beneficial. be a springboard to establishing a track
Alternatively, it might lead us to thinking record in psychology education research. By
that no real change is necessary. Colucci- serving several needs at once, such an
Gray et al. (2013) argue that action research approach makes good use of the scarce
links research with everyday professional resource of time and effort. Returning to
activities and can therefore be a tool to Sam, we could advise her that taking a peda-
explore some of our ‘taken for granted’ gogical action research approach may
practices to build knowledge in the personal, launch on her a path that has many unfore-
professional and political realms. The seen benefits for both her teaching and her
assumptions and beliefs that we may hold research that will extend far beyond the orig-
dear cannot be challenged, however, unless inal ‘problem’.
we are willing to make our thinking and our
actions more open to professional peer chal- Final reflection
lenge. This, in essence, is the fundamental Any research initiative which steps outside
aim of doing pedagogical action research conventional practice is bound to be specu-
(Norton, 2009). lative, so it requires a certain amount of
courage as the rewards are not always imme-
2. Time and effort diately obvious in terms of career progres-
Psychology academics are busy people facing sion. However, in terms of personal
a number of different pressures. We are satisfaction and for those who are motivated
expected to be subject experts, active by the aim to improve their students’
researchers, excellent teachers and some- learning and to move pedagogy forward,
times, income generators. In view of these pedagogical action research can be very satis-
demands it is scarcely surprising that there is fying. In my own academic career, I have
not much time or energy left to devote to considered pedagogical action research to
learning more about teaching better. A peda- be one of several strings to my research bow.
gogical action research approach puts us in While the publications understandably bring
charge of our own learning about me satisfaction perhaps the biggest personal
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 20 No. 2, Winter 2014 11
Lin Norton
reward has been the opportunities it has Invitation
afforded me to share pedagogical insights Participants at that workshop have
and enthusiasms with like-minded contributed to this Special Issue and are in
psychology academics along the way. In the the process of establishing a community of
same spirit I hope this paper will encourage practice in pedagogical action research. New
readers to explore its potential for them- participants would be most welcome.
selves. Readers who are interested in joining this
network can contact Sophie Cormack
Acknowledgment ([email protected]) who
This Special Issue was an outcome of a work- has set up a discussion board –
shop, Researching Your Psychology Teaching http://www.universityteachingof
Practice: An Action Research Approach, funded psychology.net/forum/
by the British Psychological Society Learning
Centre in conjunction with the Division of Correspondence
Academics, Researchers and Teachers in Lin Norton
Psychology and included in the Division’s Liverpool Hope University,
2014 CPD programme. Faculty of Education, Hope Park,
Liverpool L16 9JD.
Email: [email protected]
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