ERIC EJ1135107: Perceptions of Digital Competency among Student Teachers: Contributing to the Development of Student Teachers' Instructional Self-Efficacy in Technology-Rich Classrooms

2017·0.95 MB·English

by  ERIC

education
sciences
Article
Perceptions of Digital Competency among Student
Teachers: Contributing to the Development of
Student Teachers’ Instructional Self-Efficacy in
Technology-Rich Classrooms
EyvindElstad1,*andKnut-AndreasChristophersen2
1 DepartmentofTeacherEducationandSchoolResearch,UniversityofOslo,NO-0317Oslo,Norway
2 DepartmentofPoliticalScience,UniversityofOslo,NO-0317Oslo,Norway;[email protected]
* Correspondence:[email protected]
AcademicEditor:JamesAlbright
Received:5September2016;Accepted:5February2017;Published:10February2017
Abstract: Adequate self-efficacy is useful for motivating individuals to engage in continued
improvement. This study explores the potential antecedents of instructional self-efficacy beliefs
amongNorwegianstudentteachersattendingaprogrammeforsecondaryschoolteachers. Themost
importantfindingwasthestrongassociationbetweenthestudentteachers’perceptionsofdigital
competencytoresolvechallengesrelatingtoinformationandcommunicationtechnology(ICT)in
schoolsandtheirinstructionalself-efficacy,whichwasexploredviatwodimensions: (1)self-efficacy
formaintainingdisciplineand(2)self-efficacyforinfluencingstudents’useofICTintheserviceof
learning. Implicationsforpracticearediscussed. Wearguethatdigitalcompetencyamongstudent
teachersisimportantforsustaininginstructionalself-efficacyintechnology-richclassrooms.
Keywords: instructionalself-efficacy;studentteacher;teachereducation;technology-richclassrooms
1. Introduction
Teachereducationinstitutionsareintendedtopreparestudentteachersforprofessionallifeas
teachers. Ideally, this should involve ensuring that teachers develop digital competence through
on-campus classroom and teacher-practice experiences [1]. However, many educators in the field
believethatteachersarenotbeingadequatelypreparedtousetechnologyforinstruction[2]. Thislack
ofadequatetrainingputsteachersatadisadvantage,leavingthemtoenterthefieldwithnegativeor
non-existentperceptionsoftheirefficacyinusingeducationaltechnology[3]. Therefore,wemustask:
towhatextentdoesteachertrainingpreparestudentteacherstomanageaclassroomandmotivate
pupils’ desire to learn in technologically dense surroundings that offer opportunities for off-task
behaviours? Thefocusofthisresearchisthepreparationdoneinschoolsanduniversities. Teacher
educationprogrammesinmanycountriesarebasedonnationalcurricula,whichtypicallyemphasise
eitherdigitalcompetence[4]oranyofseveralrelatedconcepts,suchas‘technologicalpedagogical
contentknowledge’[5],‘teachers’digitalcompetence’[6]or‘professionaldigitalcompetence’[7].
Inthedigitalage,teachereducationprogrammesaregenerallyexpectedtopreparestudentsfor
theirprofessionalactivitiesinschools[8]. Thispreparationtakesplaceintwoarenas[9]:(1)on-campus
teachingand(2)teaching-practiceperiods,duringwhichstudentteachersexperiencelifeasteachers
underthesupervisionofamentor(andwithperiodicfeedbackfromtheuniversity’steachereducators).
ThisarticlefocusesonNorwegianteachereducation.
Studentteachersoftenhavelowfeelingsofmasteryduringtheirfirstattemptstoteachduringtheir
teachingpractice[9],especiallyintechnology-richclassrooms[10]. Therealitytheyoftenencounteris
aclassroominwhichthestudentshaveextensiveaccesstomobilephones,computersortabletswith
Educ.Sci.2017,7,27;doi:10.3390/educsci7010027 www.mdpi.com/journal/education
Educ.Sci.2017,7,27 2of15
Internetconnections. Non-academicuseofpersonalcomputers(PCs)intheseclassroomsiscommon,
asstudentsfrequentlykeepseveralwindowsopenandcaneasilyswitchamongthem[11]. Inasurvey,
56.6%ofstudentsatanuppersecondaryschoolreportedthattheirteachersdidnotknowwhatthey
were doing with their computers [3], and many students are experienced at quickly switching to
anacademicwindowwhenateacherisnear[12]. Researchalsoshowsthatstudentteachersoften
feel inadequately prepared to effectively use technology in their classrooms [10,13]. However, to
beeffective,studentteachersmustbecapableoftacklingtechnologicalsituationsastheyariseand
persuadingstudentstoworkconscientiouslywithcurriculummaterialswhenusingdigitalaids[14].
Onepriorstudyofteacherinstructionalself-efficacyshowsacurvilinearprogression[15]: the
senseofmasteryincreaseswithexperience(though,remarkably,maydecreaseagainaftermanyyears
ofteaching).Thesamepatternisobservedinstudiesofteachers’‘valueadded’contributionstostudent
performance[16]: thoughthenumberofyearsofteachingexperienceispositivelyassociatedwith
performance, teachers’ value added contributions plateau after several years of experience before
droppingslightly. Inotherwords,instructionalself-efficacyandvalueaddedcontributionsincrease
duringateacher’sfirstyears,andteachersaredemonstrablymoreeffectiveintheirsecondyearthanin
theirfirst[17]. Manystudentteachers,however,nevercompletetheteachereducationprogramme[18],
and many candidates leave the teaching profession during their first few years of work. To some
extent, these trends are statistically associated with the student teachers’ degrees of experienced
self-efficacy[19].
Studentteacherswithlowself-efficacymaylacktheinitiativeormotivationneededtoimprove
or may leave the field altogether. Thus, we can infer that mastery and self-efficacy are useful for
motivatingindividualstowardcontinuedimprovement. Itis,therefore,worthstudyingthefactors
associatedwithvariationsininstructionalself-efficacyintechnology-richenvironments. Weexamine
twodimensionsofinstructionalself-efficacy:(1)self-efficacyforinfluencingstudentuseofinformation
andcommunicationtechnology(ICT)intheserviceoflearningand(2)self-efficacyformaintaining
discipline in a heavily technological classroom. Skaalvik and Skaalvik [20] claimed that teachers
encounterchallengesinbothdimensionsofinstructionalself-efficacy.Therefore,thisstudyexploresthe
potentialantecedentsofstudentteachers’self-efficacybeliefsalongbothdimensionsataprogramme
forsecondaryschoolteachersataNorwegianuniversity.
2. TheContext
Inmostnationalsystems,teachereducationisarathercomplexprogrammecomprisingbotha
degreeinanacademicsubject(e.g.,mathematics,chemistry,physics,history,politicalscience)and
pedagogic education, which more directly prepares the student for professional life in a school
context [21]. To be accepted into a teacher programme at a Norwegian university, a student
teacher needs to have completed adequate preliminary education (i.e., a master’s degree in an
academic/school-relevantsubjectandoneyearofstudyinginanotheracademicorschool-relevant
subject). The combination of an adequate academic education and practical–pedagogical training
formsthequalificationforteachingyears8to13inNorwegianschools. Thispractical–pedagogical
trainingcombinescampusteachingandpracticaltraininginaschool.
Thisstudyfocusesonstudentteachersoflecturerprogrammes(i.e.,programmesforteaching
years8to13)ataNorwegianuniversity. Thecoursesinpedagogyandsubject-baseddidacticsinclude
aminimumof60daysofteachingpractice. Thisteachingpracticeismentored,assessedandvaried
andcanbecarriedouteitherindividuallyoringroups. Thetimespentonindividualorpeerteaching
istypicallyatleasteightteachinghoursperweek. Ideally,thestudentteachersprovideinstructionon
subjectstheyarequalifiedtoteach. ItisnormalfortwotofourNorwegianstudentteacherstopractice
asstudentteachersinatleasttwoschools(generallycoveringdifferentlevelswithintheschoolsystem,
suchasloweranduppersecondary)duringintensepracticeperiods[22]. Forfull-timestudents,the
practical–pedagogictrainingconsistsoftwohalf-yearterms(oneyearintotal),andthelegallyrequired
teachingpracticesaredividedsuchthathalffallintoeachterm. Duringthefinalterm,studentshavea
Educ.Sci.2017,7,27 3of15
longerteachingpractice,whichisassessedbymeansofafinalpracticalexamination(anassessment
gradedaspass/fail). Theindividualteachinginstitution,incollaborationwiththefieldofpractice,
setsroutinesforqualityassuranceandpracticeassessment.
Teachingpracticeiscarriedoutinaccreditedschools. MoststudentteachersintheNorwegian
teachereducationprogrammecompletetheirfieldexperiencesintechnology-richsecondaryschools.
UppersecondarystudentsinNorwayusuallyhaveaccesstodigitalresourcesduringtheirlessons,and
accesstocomputertechnologyisalsoincreasingamonglowersecondaryschools.Schoolsaccreditedfor
teachingpracticecollaborateformallywiththeteachereducationinstitutionthroughtheirgoverning
bodies(which,inNorway,isalocalauthorityorcountycouncil). Theteachereducationinstitution
maintainsclosecontactwiththepracticeschool. Practicementorsareexpectedtohaveexperienceand
qualificationsintheacademic(researchandteaching)fieldandinpracticementortraining;however,
inreality,thisprerequisiteissometimesdropped. Practicementorsareemployedbyboththepractice
schools(mentors)andtheuniversityteacher-traininginstitutions(teachereducators).
Itisarecognisedproblemthatthetheoreticallanguageofteachertrainingisonlysometimesused
inpracticeschools[23]. Thisphenomenonconstrastssharplywiththepracticaltrainingofmedical
students in hospitals, where students’ academic language is also the professional language [24].
Onewayofaddressingthisproblemistooffermentortrainingtomentorsinpracticeschools[25].
Currently,onlysomeofthementorswhoguidestudentteachersintheirteachingpracticepossess
suchtraining. SincethereissuchagreatneedfornewlytrainedteachersinNorway[26],authorities
encourage relatively large groups of students to take teacher education programmes. As a result,
Norwegianuniversityteachertraininginstitutionsstruggletofindadequatenumbersofpracticeplaces
fortheirstudentteachers,andpracticeplacesmustoftenbefoundinschoolsthatlieaconsiderable
distance from campus. In the practice schools, it is also often a challenge to persuade teachers
to mentor student teachers. Some teachers feel negatively about accepting such mentoring roles
becausetheactofmentoringcandisturbstudents’learningprocessesduringexaminationterms,and
disruptionsininstructioncausedbythelessskilledeffortsofastudentteachermayweakenstudents’
learningprocesses.
2.1. TheoreticalFramework
Bandura [27] introduced the concept of self-efficacy beliefs as a self-assessment of a person’s
capabilitiestoattainadesiredlevelofperformanceinagivenendeavour. Banduraassumedthatbelief
inone’sabilitieswasapowerfuldrivingmechanisminfluencingmotivationtoact,theeffortputforth
intheendeavourandthepersistenceofcopingmechanismsinthefaceofsetbacks. Severalscholars
haveappliedthistheoreticalframeworktostudentteachers’practice[28].
Scholars inspired by Bandura have proposed several possible influences on student teachers’
self-efficacybeliefs,includingmasteryandvicariousexperiences[28]. Masteryexperiences,whichmay
havepowerfulimpacts,stemfromstudentteachers’actualteachingexperienceswithstudents[29].
Self-efficacybeliefsreflectstudentteachers’perceptionsoftheirteachingachievement;ifthesebeliefs
arepositive,futureperformancesaremorelikelytobeproficient.
Campus-basedinstructionduringthestudentteacherprogrammesshouldformafoundation
on which the student teacher can develop a mastery of technology use in teaching situations [30].
Forinstance,acleargoalofteachereducationistoimparttostudentteachers‘advanceddigitalskills
and the ability to make use of relevant digital tools and resources in the service of teaching in all
subjectsandtobeabletoassessandmakeuseofdevelopmentsintechnologyandmediaandguide
childrenintheireverydayuseofdigitaltools’[1]. Thefoundationonwhichtobuildsuchskillsis
campusteachinginateacher-trainingprogramme.
Currentteacher-trainingprogrammes, however, havereceivedextensivecriticism, whichhas
suggestedthat‘thedevelopmentofprofessionaldigitalskillsisconsistentlyweaklyimplementedin
teacher training’ [1]. Some people have cast doubts on whether those teaching such courses have
theskillstodevelopcampus-basedinstructioninsubjectdidacticsandpedagogyinamannerthat
Educ.Sci.2017,7,27 4of15
will promote professional digital skills among student teachers [31]. Criticism of teacher-training
institutionshasalsobeensevere,andauthoritieshavepointedtoalackofrelevanceforprofessional
practice[1]. Oneempiricalquestionis,‘towhatextentdoestheteacher-traininginstitutionprovide
studentteacherswithabasisonwhichtodevelopprofessionaldigitalskillsthattheycanusetomaster
teachinginatechnology-richclassroom?’ Nevertheless,wesuggestthatstudentteachers’experience
andknowledgeofdigitalteachingaidsarerelatedtotheirself-efficacy.
Astudentteacher’sgoalfortaughtlessonsisforthestudentstofollowthecurriculumandwork
in a committed manner to achieve set tasks [9]. However, students may prefer to work in a more
autonomousmanner. StudentsintheNorwegianeducationalcontextarecomfortablearticulatingtheir
ownneedsforself-expressionandfeelaneedtofollowtheirgoals[32],whichmaysometimesconflict
withthestudentteacher’sgoalsforteaching. Thisconflictcanmaketeachingsessionsdemanding,
particularlyasstudentteacherstendtohaveasenseandunderstandingofthelimitationsoftheir
positionsinteachingsituations. Wethereforeinvestigatetheconnectionsbetweenperceptionsofthe
inadequacyoftheteacherroleandtwodimensionsofteacherself-efficacy: maintainingorderand
disciplineandfosteringstudentengagement. Thefollowingshowsthederivedhypotheses.
Hypothesis1. Vicariousexperiences(abbreviatedea)arepositivelyrelatedtoinstructionalself-efficacy(sem).
Hypothesis2. Positiveattitudes(dcbb)arepositivelyassociatedwithinstructionalself-efficacy(sem).
Hypothesis 3. Student teachers’ perceptions of digital competency (cse) are positively related to their
instructionalself-efficacy(sem).
Hypothesis4. Studentteachers’vicariousexperiences(ea)arepositivelyrelatedtotheirperceptionsofdigital
competency(secm).
Hypothesis 5. Perceived teaching constraints are negatively related to student teachers’ instructional
self-efficacy(sem).
Belowweexplainthedeductionofhypotheses. Vicariousexperiencesarethoseinwhichatarget
activityismodelledbyotherpersons,suchasmentorsorteachereducators[33]. Theimpactofthe
modelledachievementonastudentteacher’sself-efficacybeliefsdependsonthedegreetowhichthe
studentteacheridentifieswiththemodel[34]. Whenamodelwithwhomthestudentteacherclosely
identifiesperformswell,theself-efficacyofthestudentteacherisenhanced. Intheinformationand
communicationtechnology(ICT)context,studentteacherstendtohavepersonalexperiencewiththe
technologiestheyareexpectedtouse[35],sincepresent-daystudentteachersaregenerallyhighly
competenttechnologyusers[36]. ThisreasoningleadstoHypothesis1.
Positiveattitudestowardscomputersarepositivelycorrelatedwithteachers’levelsofexperience
withcomputertechnologyandarerecognisedasanecessaryconditionfortheeffectiveuseofICTin
theclassroom[31]. ThisreasoningleadstoHypothesis2.
Collectiveteacherefficacyinvolvesteachers’perceptionsoftheschoolstaff’seffortsasawhole[37].
Collectiveteacherefficacyisaneglectedconstructinthestudyofschools,butitisusedinstudiesof
antecedentsofindividualinstructionalself-efficacy. Today’steacherscollaboratebydiscussingand
planningtheirteaching[38],andstudentteacherslearnduringtheirfieldexperiencesthatteachers
are expected to collaborate on and carry out a number of tasks as a team [39]. It is normal for
two to four Norwegian student teachers who have one or two academic subjects in common to
practiceaspre-serviceteachersinatleasttwoschools(generallycoveringdifferentlevelswithinthe
schoolsystem,suchasprimaryandsecondary)duringintensepracticeperiods. Atypicalstudent
teacherwillexperiencedemandingteachingsituationsduringhisorherpracticum. Insuchsituations,
interpersonalsupportfromfellowstudentsmaybeimportantforensuringthatexperiencesgained
during the teaching practice contribute constructively to personal growth as a teacher. Because
Educ.Sci.2017,7,27 5of15
collectiveattitudestowardssolvingchallengesmayhaveasupportivefunctionforstudentteachers
strugglingwithteachingmatters,itisassumedthatperceptionsofdigitalcompetencyamongstudent
teachersmaycontributetotheirlevelsofbeliefregardingtheirowncapabilities. Thoughgenerational
differencesexistinteachers’levelsofresistancetousingdigitalaidsinteaching[40],youngstudent
teachersaretypicallyconsideredtobedigitalnativesregardingtechnologyuse[34]. Furthermore,the
schoolsinwhichstudentteacherscarryouttheirteachingpracticearegenerallywell-equippedwith
technologicalequipment,andmanyNorwegianstudentshavePCsintheirclassrooms[41]. Inother
words,studentteachershaveampleopportunitytogainexperienceintheuseofICTinteaching.
Studentteachersarealsolikelytoworkbothaloneandwithotherteachersandstudentteachers
intheirresearchandtheirexperience-basedapproachestopracticeworkintheirpracticeschools[9].
To our knowledge, perceptions of digital competency among student teachers have not yet been
includedinanalysesoftheantecedentsofstudentteachers’instructionalefficacyintechnology-rich
classrooms. Scholarshaveidentifiedseveralconstraintfactorsthataffectstudentteachers’possibilities
foraction[42].Weexplorehowstudentteachers’perceptionsofthelimitationsofwhatcanbeachieved
througheducationconcerningstudents’behaviour(whichmayinducearousal)areassociatedwith
theirefficacy(includingself-efficacyformaintainingdiscipline,self-efficacyforinfluencingstudents’
useofICTintheserviceoflearningandperceptionsofdigitalcompetency).
A student teacher’s first experiences of teaching can be stressful. The teaching situation is
complex,and,intheabsenceofpriorexperience,astudentteacherneedstoconsidermanyfactors
simultaneously,whichcaneasilyleadtoworkingmemoryoverloadandstress[43]. Withexperience,
teachersbecomeabletoactmoreautomatically,thusreducingcognitiveoverload[44]. Toreducethis
pressure,studentteacherscanengageindetailedplanningandthinkthroughpossiblesituationsthat
mayarise. Whilesurvivalistheprimarygoalofastudentteacher’sfirstteacher-practiceperiods[42],
an increasing level of experience gradually points students and newly qualified teachers towards
understandinghowlearnersareactuallylearningasaresultoftheirteaching[9]. Thisshiftoccursat
thesametimethatthestudentornewlyqualifiedteacherisreinforcingandconsolidatinghisorher
teachingrepertoire[45]. Theprocessconstitutesastrengtheningofteacherefficacyandisconsidered
to be a positive sign of an individual’s professional development in his or her teaching role [46].
SincetheprognosisinNorwaypointstowardsafutureshortageofteachers[26],itisimportantto
investigatewhichfactorsarestatisticallyassociatedwithstudentteacherefficacy. Thisreasoningleads
toHypotheses3and4.
Within Europe, Norway is among the countries with the greatest technology accessibility in
schools [41]. Many schools maintain libraries of PCs and tablets that students are able to borrow.
Sincethetechnologyispurchasedandmadeavailable,localauthoritiesandcountycouncilsoften
expect that it be used in teaching and become dissatisfied if it is used too little. Thus, Norwegian
society has expressed a clear expectation that teaching should be modernised and that students
should use technology in their learning. At the same time, however, students use technological
devices,suchasPCsandmobilephones,forpurposesotherthanonesinaccordancewiththeteacher’s
directions to support their learning. Therefore, classroom technologies also have the potential to
create distraction [47]. To address this risk, teachers and student teachers may place restrictions
on students’ use of technology to ensure that the students follow class rules and to prevent them
frombeingdistractedbyperipheralcontentontheInternet[48]. Suchcasesareexamplesofteachers
creatingboundariesforstudentbehaviour. However,despitethesechallenges,studentteachersshould
havemoreproactiveattitudestowardstheuseoftechnologyinteaching;theyshouldfindwaysto
motivatestudents’desiretolearn[49],makestudentsbelievethattheycanlearnbetterbyusingdigital
learningaidsandpersuadethemtoworkdiligentlyontheircurriculum[50]. Thisreasoningleadsto
Hypothesis5.
Educ.Sci.2017,7,27 6of15
2.2. Methods
Toanswerourresearchquestions,weconductedasurveyofstudentteacherswhohadrecently
completedtheirlongteacher-practiceperiodandwerewritingreportsontheirexperiences.
3. Participants
Thedatacollectionwascarriedoutamongstudentsfollowingthestudentteacherprogramme
ataNorwegianuniversity. Thesestudents’specialismswerestudiesofhumanities,socialsciences,
mathematics and natural sciences. Firstly, items were explored in a pilot study where alternative
itemswerediscussedamongstudentteachersbeforeselectingitems. Secondly,thestudentteachers
completedaquestionnaireinconnectionwithacompulsoryseminar. Allofthestudentsoptedto
participate. Thesurveywascarriedoutamongst104Norwegianstudentteachersduringtheautumn
of2015.
4. DataSources
We designed our cross-sectional survey as a questionnaire to administer to student teachers
duringtheirlastyearoftheteachertrainingprogramme,aftertheyhadcompletedtheireight-week
fieldexperience. Thequestionnaireaskedthestudentstorecalltheextenttowhichtheyconsidered
theirstudiesrelevanttoteachingpracticeandtodescribetheirexperiences. Thequestionnairewas
constructedbasedonacknowledgedmeasurementinstrumentspreviouslyreportedintheliterature
(adaptedfrom[51])andasanewdevelopmentonattitudes.Thoughanumberofinstrumentsexist[52]
andhavebeenusedinstudiesofstudentteachers’reactionstotechnologyuseinteaching,wefelt
thatnoneofthesewerewellsuitedtoourresearchambition(theconstruct,‘Competenciestosupport
pupilsforICT-useinclass’[53]partlyoverlapsourconstruct,‘Self-efficacyforinfluencingthepupil’s
useofICTintheserviceoflearning’),asthedimensionsseemednottocentreonstudentteachers’
fieldexperiencesintechnology-richenvironments. Thus,wechosetouseinstrumentsdesignedforthe
particulargoalsofoursurvey.
Ourdescriptionofthecontextwasasfollows:
‘Imaginethatyouhavebeengivenatemporaryjobasateacherataschool. Theschool
leadershiphasdeterminedthateachstudentshouldhavehisorherowncomputerwithan
InternetconnectionandunrestrictedInternetaccessduringyourlessons.’
Inthesurvey,thestudentteachersrespondedtoitemsonaseven-pointLikertscalerangingfrom
one(low)toseven(high),withfourrepresentinganeutralmidpoint. Theconceptsweremeasured
withtwotothreesingleitems. Theanalysisreportedinthefollowingisbasedonfivemeasurement
instruments. The internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) was estimated for each of the concepts.
Thestudentteacherswereaskedtogiveanswerstothefollowingquestions.
Self-EfficacyforMaintainingDiscipline(Secm),α=0.89
Howcertainareyouthatyoucan:
• persuade even the most gaming-interested students to concentrate on school-related tasks?
(ItemNo.w3)
• persuadestudentswhooftenswitchamongdifferentsocialmediatofollowclassroomrules? (w4)
• persuade all students to concentrate on educational tasks without being disturbed by other
Internet-basedmaterial? (w5)
Self-EfficacyforInfluencingStudents’UseofICTintheServiceofLearning(Sem),α=0.79
• Usingdigitalaids,towhatextentcanyoumotivatestudentstohavearealdesiretolearn? (w12)
• Towhatextentcanyoupersuadestudentstobelievethattheycanlearnbetterbyemploying
digitallearningresources? (w13)
Educ.Sci.2017,7,27 7of15
• Towhatextentcanyoupersuadestudentstoworkhardwithcurriculummaterialswhentheyare
usingdigitalresources? (w14)
ProspectivePerceptionsofDigitalCompetencytoResolveChallengesRelatingtoICTinSchools(Cse),
α=0.72
Atthisschool,theteachers:
• effectivelypreventdigitalbullyingonschoolpremises. (w16)
• handleanyproblemsthatarisewithICTasalearningresourcebecauseweworkasateam. (w17)
• createasafeatmosphereeveninthemostchallengingclasses. (w18)
ConstraintFactors: PerceptionsofStudentSelf-DeterminationinUsingICT(Dcb1),α=0.82
• The amount that students learn at school by using ICT is determined primarily by their
motivation.(w25)
• The amount that students learn at school by using ICT is determined primarily by their
self-discipline. (w26)
VicariousExperienceUnderstoodasEnactiveAttainment(Ea),α=0.38
• To what extent have you gained experience during teaching-practice periods with teaching
resourcescontainingpictures,illustrations,videoclips,animationsandaudiofragments? (w29)
• Towhatextenthaveyougainedknowledgethroughtheteacher-trainingcourseaboutteaching
resourcescontainingpictures,illustrations,videoclips,animationsandaudiofragments? (w30)
AttitudesTowardsDigitalSkills(Dcbb),α=0.79
• The focus on digital skills in this school has contributed to reinforcing students’ academic
learning.(w36)
• Thefocusondigitalskillsinthisschoolhasresultedinappropriatecontemporaryeducation.(w38)
• Thefocusondigitalskillsinthisschoolhasbeenadeviation(reversed). (w39)
4.1. Results
Table1showsthedescriptivestatisticsoftheitemsused.
Table1.Items’means,standarddeviations,minimumandmaximumscores,skewnessandkurtosis.
Item Minimum Maximum Mean Std.Deviation Skewness Kurtosis
w3 1.00 6.00 3.24 1.46 0.20 −0.88
w4 1.00 7.00 3.63 1.47 0.00 −0.76
w5 1.00 6.00 3.13 1.46 0.26 −0.85
w12 1.00 7.00 5.02 1.10 −0.85 2.46
w13 1.00 7.00 4.64 1.25 −0.41 0.49
w14 1.00 7.00 4.39 1.10 −0.30 0.04
w16 1.00 7.00 3.43 1.46 0.37 −0.18
w17 1.00 7.00 4.42 1.36 −0.15 0.11
w18 1.00 7.00 4.45 1.16 −0.30 0.01
w25 1.00 7.00 4.63 1.41 −0.35 0.06
w26 1.00 7.00 4.95 1.44 −0.52 −0.05
w29 1.00 7.00 5.77 1.27 −1.55 2.69
w30 1.00 7.00 4.28 1.48 −0.29 −0.75
w36 1.00 7.00 4.23 1.13 −0.18 0.51
w38 1.00 7.00 5.04 1.37 −0.78 0.46
w39 1.00 7.00 5.19 1.62 −0.81 −0.23
Educ.Sci.2017,7,27 8of15
Structuralequationmodelling,whichissuitableforconfirmatoryfactoranalysisandpathanalysis,
wasusedtoanalysetherelationshipsamongthevariables[54]. Toaddressmeasurementerrorsin
the analysis, the structural models were designed to include the measurement models. If we had
conducted an exploratory factor analysis and used factor scores instead of latent variables in the
structuralequationmodelling(SEM)analysis,themeasurementerrorswouldhaveinfluencedthe
estimationtoagreaterextent.
Theassessmentsofthefitbetweenthemodelandthedataarebasedonthefollowingindices:
Educ. Sci. 2017, 7, 27 8 of 15
rootmeansquareerrorofapproximation(RMSEA),Tucker-Lewisindex(TLI),goodness-of-fitindex
we had conducted an exploratory factor analysis and used factor scores instead of latent variables in
(GFI)andcomparativefitindex(CFI).RMSEA<0.05andTLI,GFIandCFI>0.95indicateagoodfit,
the structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis, the measurement errors would have influenced
whileRMSEA<0.08andTLI,GFIandCFI>0.90indicateanacceptablefit.
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numericalvalue.
(arrows) between them. The path arrows indicate theoretical common causes, and the figures
Figur(est1ansdhaordwissedth reegersetsismiona tceodefsfitcriuencttsu) rraefllemcto tdhee lmineawsuhreidc hstsreenlfg-tehfsfi ocfa tchye fcoornninecfltiuoenns. cSintrgensgttuh dents’use
ofICTinthinecrseearsvesi cweitohf tlheea nrunminegricaanl vdaslueel.f -efficacyformaintainingdisciplinearethedependentvariables.
WhilethemodFeigluirse s1u sbhsotwasn tthiae lelsytimrealteevda sntrtu,ctthureall omaoddienl gins wohfiicthe mselsf-leifnfickaecdy ftoor einnflaucetnicvienga stttuadinenmtse’ ntarenot
use of ICT in the service of learning and self-efficacy for maintaining discipline are the dependent
fullysatisfactory.Further,theitem‘Towhatextenthaveyougainedexperienceduringteaching-practice
variables. While the model is substantially relevant, the loadings of items linked to enactive
periodswaitthtaitnemaecnhti anrge nreots ofuullryc seasticsfoancttoariyn. iFnugrthpeirc, ttuher eitse,mil ‘lTuos twrhaatit oenxtse,nvt ihdaveeo ycoluip gsa,inaendi mexapetiroiennscea ndaudio
fragmentsd?ur(iwng2 9te)a’chhiansg-hpirgachticsek peewrinodess swaitnh dtekacuhrintog sriess.ouTrhceesr ecofontraein,itnhge pcicotnursetsr, uilcluts“trVatiicoanrsi, ovuidseoe xperience
understoocdlipass, eanniamcatitvioensa tatnadin amudeinot ”fra(gambbenretsv? ia(wte2d9)’e ah)asw haigshs psklietwinnetsos tawndo skiunrtgolseisi. teTmhesre,foorne,w thhei chweran
construct “Vicarious experience understood as enactive attainment” (abbreviated ea) was split into
newSEManalyses(Figures2and3,Table2).
two single items, on which we ran new SEM analyses (Figures 2 and 3).

Figure 1. Structural equational modelling. Abbreviations: secm = self-efficacy for maintaining
Figure 1. Structural equational modelling. Abbreviations: secm = self-efficacy for maintaining
discipline; sem = self-efficacy for influencing students’ use of information and communication
discipline; sem = self-efficacy for influencing students’ use of information and communication
technology (ICT) in the service of learning; cse = perceptions of digital competency among student
technologytea(cIhCeTrs) oirn ‘tetahcehesre crovlliacbeoroaftiolena tron reinsoglv;ec csheal=lenpgeersc reeplattiinogn tso oICfTd iing sicthaoloclos’m; dpcbe1t =e npecryceapmtioonns gstudent
teachersorof‘ tsetuadcehnetr seclof-ldlaetbeormraintiaotinont oinr uessionlgv IeCTch; eaal l=e enngaectsivree alatttaiinngmetontI; CdcTbbin = sactthitoudoelss ’t;odwcabrd1s= dipgietarcl eptionsof
studentselsfk-idlles.t erminationinusingICT;ea=enactiveattainment;dcbb=attitudestowardsdigitalskills.
Educ.Sci.2017,7,27 9of15
Educ. Sci. 2017, 7, 27 9 of 15
Educ. Sci. 2017, 7, 27 9 of 15

FigureF2ig.urSet r2u. cStutrruacltueraqlu eaqtiuoantiaolnaml omdoedlelilnlingg.. AAbbbbrreevviaitaitoinosn: ss:ecsme cm= s=elf-seeflffic-eacffiy cfaocry mfoairntmainaiinngt aining
disciplFdiinigsecu;irpels ine2me. ; Sste=rmuc st=eu lsrfae-lle ff-eefiqfcfuiacacatyicoyn ffaool rr miinnofdlflueuellneincnignc.ig n Asgtbubsdrteeunvditase’t inoutnsses’ : ousf esIceCmTo if=n IstCehleTf- esfeifnrivcaitcchey e offos lree ramvrniaciinengta;o icnfsienl eg=a rning;
perceptions of digital competency among student teachers or ‘teacher collaboration to resolve
cse=pdeisrcciepplitnieo;n ssemof =d sigelift-aelffcicoamcyp feotre inncflyueanmciongn gstsutduednetsn’ tutseea ocfh IeCrTs oinr ‘ttheea scehrevricce oolfl alebaorrnaintigo; ncsteo =r esolve
challenges relating to ICT in schools’; dcb1 = perceptions of student self-determination in using ICT;
challenpgerecsepretiloantsin ogf todiIgCitaTl icnomscpheoteonlscy’; damcbo1ng= psteurdceenpt titoeancsheorfs stour d‘teenatchseerl f-cdolelatebromraitnioant ioton riensoulvsien gICT;
dcbb = attitudes towards digital skills. Item 30 is: ‘To what extent have you gained knowledge
dcbb=chaattlilteundgeess rteolawtianrgd tso dICigTi tianl ssckhiollosl.s’I;t demcb13 =0 pise:rc‘Tepotiwonhsa otfe sxttuednetnht asevlef-dyeotuergmaininaetidonk inno uwsilnegd gICeTt;h rough
through the teacher-training course about teaching resources containing pictures, illustrations, video
dcbb = attitudes towards digital skills. Item 30 is: ‘To what extent have you gained knowledge
theteacclihpesr, -atnriaminaitniognsc aonudr saeudaibo ofruatgmteeancths?i’n gresourcescontainingpictures, illustrations, videoclips,
through the teacher-training course about teaching resources containing pictures, illustrations, video
animationsandaudiofragments?’
clips, animations and audio fragments?’

Figure 3. Structural equational modelling. Abbreviations: secm = self-efficacy f or maintaining
discipline; sem = self-efficacy for influencing students’ use of ICT in the service of learning; cse =
Figure 3. Structural equational modelling. Abbreviations: secm = self-efficacy for maintaining
Figurep3er.ceSpttriouncst uorfa dliegqituala tcioomnpaeltemncoyd ealmlionngg. sAtubdbenrte vteiaatcihoenrss :ors e‘ctemach=er secolfl-laebffiorcaatcioyn ftoor rmesaolivnet aining
discipline; sem = self-efficacy for influencing students’ use of ICT in the service of learning; cse =
disciplpcihneraecl;elepnstgieoemns sr e=olaf tsidneiglgf i-tteoaf lIfi CccToam cinyp sectfheonorcoylis n’a;fl mducoebnn1g c= i snpteugrdcesenptutt idoteneasnc tohsfe’ rsstuu osdere n‘ott efsaeclIhfC-edTre tceiornmllaitbnhoaertiaotsineo rninv itucose inregos foIClvlTee;a rning;
dcbb = attitudes towards digital skills. Item 29 is: ‘To what extent have you gained experience
cse=pcehraclleepntgieosn rseloatfindgi gtoit aIClTc oinm spcheoteonlsc’;y dacbm1 o=n pgerscteupdtieonnst otef astcuhdeernst oserlf‘-tdeeatcehrmerincaotilolanb ionr uastiinogn ICtoT;r esolve
during teaching-practice periods with teaching resources containing pictures, illustrations, video
challendgcbebs =re alatttiitnudgesto toIwCaTrdisn dsicghitoalo lssk’i;llsd. cIbte1m= 2p9 eirs:c e‘Tpot iownhsato efxstetnutd heanvte syeolfu- dgeatienremd ienxapteiroinencine using
clips, animations and audio fragments?’
ICT;dcdbubrin=g attetaictuhidnegs-ptroawctiacred psedriiogdist awlistkhi ltlesa.cIhtienmg r2e9soiusr:c‘eTso cownhtaaitnienxgt epnicttuhraevs,e iylluosutrgataioinnes,d veidxepoe rience
clips, animations and audio fragments?’
duringteaching-practiceperiodswithteachingresourcescontainingpictures,illustrations,videoclips,
animationsandaudiofragments?’
Educ.Sci.2017,7,27 10of15
Table2.Hypothesesandresults.
Hypothesis Wording Result
Theassociationsbetweenthesevariablesinmodel1and
Vicariousexperiencesarepositively
1 model2arenotsignificantand,thus,failtosupport
relatedtoinstructionalself-efficacy.
thehypothesis.
Theassociation(b(dcbb→sem)=0.40)inmodel1is
Positiveattitudesarepositivelyrelated
2 significantandsupportsthehypothesis;however,the
toinstructionalself-efficacy.
association(b(dcbb→secm)=0.08)isnotsignificant.
Theassociation(b(cse→sem)=0.36)inmodel1is
Perceptionofdigitalcompetencyamong
significantandsupportsthehypothesis.Theassociation
3 studentteachersispositivelyrelatedto
(b(cse→secm)=0.50)inmodel1issignificantand
instructionalefficacy.
supportsthehypothesis.
Vicariousexperiencesarepositively Theassociations(b(ea→secm)=−0.00)and
4 relatedtoperceptionsofdigital (b(ea→sem)=−0.08)arenotsignificantanddonot
competencyamongstudentteachers. supportthehypothesis.
Constraintfactorsarenegativelyrelated Theassociationbetweenthesevariablesinmodel2isnot
5
toinstructionalefficacy. significantand,thus,failstosupportthehypothesis.
4.2. Discussion
The raison d’être of teacher education is to qualify student teachers for their working life as
teachers [21]. The value added by a teacher education programme is related to the quality of its
campus-based courses, the student teachers’ talent for carrying out the tasks associated with the
teaching profession, the quality of the mentoring received by the student teachers during their
school-based practicum and the student teachers’ learning activities [55]. The interrelationships
amongthesefactorsarecomplex,anditisdifficulttoisolatethesignificanceofanyoneindividual
factorinsuchawayastoprovideunambiguousinformationaboutthequalityofateachereducation
programme[56]. Nevertheless,inthisarticle,werestrictthescopetofocussolelyontheantecedentsof
studentteachers’instructionalefficacy.
Student teachers’ attitudes towards students’ digital skills are strongly associated with their
self-efficacyforinfluencingstudents’useofICT,butnotwiththeirself-efficacyformaintainingorder
anddiscipline.Whileweakassociationswerefoundbetweenstudentteachers’enactiveattainmentand
theirinstructionalefficacybeliefs,weadmitthattheinstrumentusedtomeasureenactiveattainment
did not function well. More research is, therefore, needed to better understand the relationships
between student teachers’ experiences during field practicums and teacher-training courses and
digitalteachingresources(i.e.,resourcescontainingpictures,illustrations,videoclips,animationsand
audiofragments).
We observe a strong empirical relationship between student teachers’ perceptions of digital
competencyandtheirself-efficacyformaintainingdiscipline. Amoderatelystrongrelationshipexists
betweenstudentteachers’perceptionsofdigitalcompetencyandtheirself-efficacyforinfluencing
students’useofICTintheserviceoflearning. Wecansaythatitisbeneficialforastudentteacherto
experienceteachercollaborationintheefforttosolveICT-relatedchallengeswithinapracticeschool.
Thisfindingissupportedbyalonglineofresearchthathighlightstheimportanceofthecollective
dimension of the teaching profession [57]. The first practice period might begin with a sheltered
introductiontoteachingpractice;however,studentteacherswillfinditeasiertogrowintotheirrolesas
leadersoflearningprocessesifareasonablebalanceexistsbetweenchallengesandopportunities[58].
Viewedinlightofitsimportanceinreinforcingteacherefficacy,socialisationwithinschoolteachingstaff
isalsoanimportantfactor[59]. Wealsoarguethatperceptionsofdigitalcompetencyamongstudent
teachersrepresentanunder-recogniseddimensionofgoodteachereducation. Teachereducatorsmay
stimulateperceptionsofdigitalcompetencyamongstudentteachersbydeliberatelygatheringsmall
groupsofstudentswhohaveinitiallygoodrelationsduringpracticeperiods.