ERIC ED381136: Professional Development.

37 Pages·1995·1.4 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 381 136
IR 017 058
TITLE
Professional Development.
INSTITUTION
ACCESS ERIC, Rockville, MD.
SPONS AGENCY
Office of Educational Research
and Improvement (ED),
Washington, DC.
REPORT NO
ERIC-95-5005; ISSN-1065-1160
PUB DATE
95
NOTE
37p.
AVAILABLE FROM
ACCESS ERIC, 1600 Research
Boulevard, Rockville, MD
20850 (subscription free; obtain
back issues from
EDRS).
PUB TYPE
Collected Works
Serials (022)
Information
Analyses
ERIC Clearinghouse Products (071)
JOURNAL CIT
ERIC Review; v3 n3 Win 1995
EDRS PRICE
MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS
Academic Achievement; *Elementary
Secondary
Education; *Inservice Teacher
Education;
*Instructional Improvement;
Learning Processes;
*Preservice Teacher Education;
*Professional
Development; Teacher Attitudes; *Teacher
Competencies
IDENTIFIERS
Department of Education; ERIC;
Paradigm Shifts
ABSTRACT
The "ERIC Review"
announces research results,
publications, and new
programs relevant to each issue's theme
topic.
This issue focuses
on the changing face of K-12 professional
development for both preservice
and inservice teachers. The
opening
article by Dennis Sparks, "A
Paradigm Shift in Staff Development,"
describes a paradigm shift
that professional development
is
undergoing based on changing ideas
about ways to measure student
achievement; a recognition
that curriculum, instruction,
assessment,
and school organization
are intertwined; and a new understanding
of
how people learn through
models and experience rather
than passive
absorption of information.
The lead article, "Professional
Teacher
Development" by Mary Dilworth
and David Imig, describes
the teaching
force today, and changes in
teacher education and development
programs. Joseph Vaughan of the U.S.
Department of Education
describes efforts by the Office
of Educational Research
and
Improvement to build and support
a professional development agenda
based on input from teachers
and other stakeholders in "OERI
Launches
Professional Development
Initiatives." "Teacher Collaboration
in
Urban Secondary Schools,"
a digest from the ERIC Clearinghouse
on
Urban Education by Morton
Inger, explores how teachers
can work
together to improve teaching
and learning. Additional
articles
include "Teacher Professionalism:
The Movement Has Begun" (Arthur
E.
Wise); "Assessing Accomplished
Teaching" (from AFT's "Questline");
and "Professional Development
Schools: Their Role in
Teacher
Development" (Ismat Abdal-Haqq).
Reading and
resource organization
lists on professional
development are also provided. (AEF)
Vol. 3 Issue 3, Winter 1995
I
U./
U.S. Department of Education
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
Educational Resources Information Center
U S DEPARTMENT OF
EDUCATION
Office ot Educational Research
and Improvement
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
O
This document has
been reprOduced as
received from the person
or organization
Originating it
C) Minor changes have
been made to improve
reproduction gush?).
Points of view or opinionS
slated minis docu.
men) dO not necessarily
represent official
OERI DOS iiqn or policy
A Paradigm Shift
in Staff Development
Professional Teacher
Development
Teacher Collaboration
in Urban Schools
11111111111
1
Resource
Reading
Federal
ERIC System
List
Organizations
Initiatives
Developments
2
Important Message to Our Readers
10111111An
Teachers are becoming engaged in serious efforts
to improve teaching and learning within
their schools in ways that are responsive
to the particular needs of their students. This
issue of The ERIC Review focuses
on the changing face of K-12 professional develop-
ment for both preservice and inservice teachers.
In the opening article, Dennis Sparks describes
a paradigm shift that professional devel-
opment is undergoing based on changing ideas about
ways to measure student achieve-
ment; a recognition that curriculum, instruction,
assessment, and school organization are
intertwined; and a new understanding of how
people learn through models and experience
rather than through the passive absorption of
information. The lead article by Mary
Dilworth and David Imig describes the teaching
force today as well as some of the
changes under way in teacher education and
development programs.
Shorter pieces cover professional development
schools and the work of two
groups estab-
lished to ensure a high-quality teaching
force: the National Council for Accreditation
of
Teacher Education and the National Board for
Professional Teaching Standards. Also in
this issue, Joseph Vaughan of the U.S.
Department of Education's Office of Educational
Research and Improvement describes OERI's
efforts to build and support
a professional
development agenda based
on input from teachers and other stakeholders. "Teacher Col-
laboration in Urban Secondary Schools,"
a digest from the ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban
Education, explores how teachers
can work together to improve teaching and learning.
Reading and resource organization lists
are also provided to enable interested readers to
learn more about professional development.
The materials in this journal
are in the public domain and may be reproduced and
disseminated freely. If you'd like
more information about what the Educational Re-
sources Information Center has to offer, details
on how to access the database, or a refer-
t.
ral to one of the 16 subject-specific ERIC
Clearinghouses, please call 1-800LETERIC
or send e-mail to acceric
inet.ed.gov.
r
4 431.4.,4 4. 4!
-4-7....frtSC.T'.--."
.
1111111111111M1111W
U.S. Department of Education
Office of Educational Research and
National Library of Education
Improvement
Richard W. Riley
Diane Dcssy
Secretary
Sharon P. Robinson
Acting Director
Assistant Secretary
ERIC
Educational Resources
Your Education
Information Center
Information Network
The Educational Resources Informa-
tion Center is a nationwide informa-
Contents
tion service designed to make
education literature readily accessible.
The ERIC system consists of 16
2
A Paradigm Shift in Staff Development
subject-specific clearinghouses;
Dennis Sparks
several adjunct clearinghouses;
Professional Teacher Development
and support components, including
5
ACCESS ERIC. At the heart of
Mary E. Dilworth and David G. lmig
ERIC is the largest education
12
Teacher Professionalism: The Movement Has Begun
database in the worldcontaining
Arthur E. Wise
850,000 abstracts of documents and
journal articles. Curriculum materials,
13
ERIC Training Resources
papers, conference proceedings, and
literature reviews, along with
14
Assessing Accomplished Teaching
abstracts of articles from nearly 800
AFT's
QuestLine
From
education-related journals, can be
Professional Development Schools: Their Role in
found in the ERIC database.
16
Teacher Development
You can access ERIC at about 3,000
Ismat Abdal-Haqq
locations around the world. Typi-
cally, university, state, and large city
18
OERI Launches Professional Development Initiatives
public libraries offer access to ERIC
Joseph C. Vaughan
through their microfiche collections
20
Professional Development Resource Organizations List
and online or CD-ROM searches. The
ERIC database is also accessible
24
Professional Development Reading List
through some computer networks.
28
Teacher Collaboration in Urban Secondary Schools
In addition, documents selected
Morton Inger
for the database are abstracted and
announced in ERIC's monthly
30
Putting It All Together: An Action Plan
journal, Resources in Education.
The full text of most documents
ERIC: Tips for Teachers in Training
31
announced in ERIC is available in
microfiche or paper copy from the
ERIC Document Reproduction
Service, 1-800 443 -ERIC. ERIC
Editorial Board
announces journal literature in a
separate monthly publication, Current
Pat Coulter, Acting Director, ERIC Program, U.S Department of Education, Office of Educational
Index to Journals in Education.
Research and Improvement
Craig B. Howley, Director. ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools
ACCESS ERIC reference staff can
answer questions about the ERIC
Sandra Kerka, Associate Director. ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational
system and its services and products,
Education
and refer you to the clearinghouses,
Stuart Smith, Associate Director for Publications, ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational
which contain vast subject expertise
Management
in various fields of education.
Garry Walz, Director, ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services
Gain entry to a world of education
information. Call 1-800-LET-ERIC,
positions or policie., of the Department of
The ERIC Review, published by ACCESS
Monday through Friday, 8:30 a.m. to
ERIC with support from the U.S. Department
Education or OERI.
5:15 p.m. (eastern time). Requests
of Education's Office of Educational
For more information about ERIC or a free
can also be made by writing:
Research and Improvement (0ER1),
subscription to The ERIC Review, call
announces research results, publications, and
ACCESS ERIC toll free at 1-800LETERIC.
ACCESS ERIC, 1600 Research
new programs. It also contains information
Boulevard, Rockville, MD 20850.
on the Educational Resources Information
ACCESS ERIC Director: Lynn Smarte
Center (ERIC), its subject-specific
Managing Editor: Carol Laseski Boston
Internet: acccric @inet.ed.gov
clearinghouses, and support components. The
Graphic Artist: Stephanie L. Mclis
ideas and opinions expressed in this
Copy Editor: Caroline S.A. Baker
publication do not necessarily reflect the
ISSN 106 -1160
4
A
SHIFT
IN
ARADIGM
DEVELOPMENT
STAFF
D
by Dennis Sparks
thought systemically, reform has been
they receive, but by what they actually
wring the past 20 years, it
approached in a piecemeal fashion.
know and can do as a result of their
has gone by many names
time in school. Results-driven educa-
inservice education, staff
An important aspect of systems think-
tion for students will require that
development, professional develop-
ing is that changes in one part of the
teachers and administrators alter their
ment, and human resource develop-
systemeven relatively minor
attitudes (e.g., from the idea that grades
ment. But whatever it was called, it too
changescan have significant effects
should be based on the bell curve to the
often was essentially the same thing
on other parts of the system, either
belief that virtually all students can
educators (usually teachers) sitting
positively or negatively. To complicate
acquire the school's valued outcomes
relatively passively while an "expert"
the situation, these effects may not
provided they are given sufficient time
"exposed" them to new ideas or
become obvious for months or even
and appropriate instruction) and acquire
"trained" them in new practices. The
years, which may lead observers to
new instructional knowledge and skills.
success of this endeavor was typically
miss the link between the two events.
judged by a "happiness quotient" that
Results-driven education for students
measured participants' satisfaction with
For instance, graduation requirements
will require results-driven staff
the experience and their assessment
may be increased, teachers may be
development for educators. Staff
regarding its usefulness in their work.
trained in some new process, or deci-
development's success will be judged
sion making may be decentralized, with
primarily not by how many teachers
Fortunately, all of this is at long last
little thought given to how these
and administrators participate in staff
being swept away by irresistible. forces
changes influence other parts of the
development or how they perceive its
that are currently at work in education.
system. As a result, "improvements" in
value, but by whether it alters instruc-
History teaches us the power of a
one area may produce unintended
tional behavior in a way that benefits
transforming idea, an alteration in
consequences in another part of the
students. The goal of staff development
world view so profound that all that
system (e.g., increasing graduation
and other improvement efforts is
follows is changed forever. Such
requirements in science without making
becoming improved performance on
a paradigm shift is now rapidly
appropriate changes in assessment,
the part of students, staff, and the
transforming the discipline of "staff
curriculum, and instructional methods
organization.
development." (I will use this term
may increase the dropout rate).
throughout because our professional
Systems thinking. This second
language has not yet caught up with the
To address this issue, Peter Senge,
transforming idea recognizes the
paradigm shift that is described below.)
author of The Fifth Discipline (1990),
complex, interdependent relationships
encourages organizational leaders to
among the various parts of the system.
identify points of high leverage in the
Three Powerful Ideas
When the parts of a system come
systempoints that he refers to as
together, they form something that is
Three nowerful ideas are currently
"trim tabs." Change introduced into
bigger and more complex than those
altering the shape of this nation's
individual parts. Systems thinkers are
schools and the staff development that
individuals who are able to see how
Dennis Sparks is Executive Director of
occurs within them.
these parts constantly influence one
the National Staff Development Council in
another in ways that can support or
Oxford, Ohio. This article is reprinted from
Results-driven education. Results-
hinder improvement efforts. Because
Journal of Staff
the Fall 1994 issue of the
driven education judges success not by
educational leaders typically have not
Development.
the courses students take or the grades
2
The ERIC Review
0
themselves as service agencies for
It is now clear that success for all
these areas can have a positive ripple
schools. This comprehensive approach
students depends upon both the learn-
effect throughout the organization (e.g.,
to change makes certain that all aspects
ing of individual school employees and
a change in assessment strategies may
of the system (e.g., assessment, curricu-
improvements hi the capacity of the
have a significant effect on curriculum
lum, instruction, parent involvement)
organization to solve problems and
and instruction).
are working in tandem toward a man-
renew itself. While the knowledge,
ageable set of outcomes that are valued
skills, and attitudes of individuals must
Constructivism. Constructivists
throughout the system.
continually be addressed; quality
believe that learners build knowledge
improvement expert W. Edwards
structures rather than merely receive
From district-focused to school-
Deming estimates that 85 percent of the
II
them from teachers. In this view,
focused approaches to staff develop-
barriers to improvement reside in the
knowledge is not simply transmitted
ment. While districtwide awareness
organization's structure and processes,
from teacher to student, but is instead
and skill-building programs sometimes
not in the performance of individuals.
constructed in the mind of the learner.
have their place, more attention today
From a constructivist perspective, it is
is being directed to helping schools
For instance, asking teachers to hold
critical that teachers model appropriate
meet their improvement goals. Schools
higher expectations for students within
behavior, guide student activities, and
set their goals both to assist the school
a school that tracks students pits teach-
provide various forms of examples
system in achieving its long-term
ers against the system in which they
rather than use common instructional
objectives and to address challenges
work. As systems thinking has taught
practices that emphasize telling and
unique to their students' needs.
us, unless individual learning and
directing.
organizational changes are addressed
School improvement efforts in which
simultaneously and support one an-
Constructivist teaching will be best
the entire staff seeks incremental
other, the gains made in one area may
learned through constructivist staff
annual improvement related to a set of
be canceled by continuing problems in
development. Rather than receiving
common objectives (e.g., helping all
the other.
"knowledge" from "experts" in training
students become better problem solv-
sessions, teachers and administrators
M From fragmented, piecemeal
ers, increasing the number of students
will collaborate with peers, researchers.
improvement efforts to staff develop-
who participate in a voluntary commu-
and their own students to make sense of
ment driven by a clear, coherent
nity service program to 100 percent)
the teaching/learning process in their
strategic plan for the school district,
over a 3- to 5-year span are viewed as
own contexts. Staff development from
each school, and the departments
the key to significant reform. As a
a constructivist perspective will include
that serve schools. Educational experts
result, more learning activities are
activities that many educators may not
designed and implemented by school
such as Seymour Sarason (1990) and
even view as staff development, such
faculties, with the district's staff devel-
Michael Fullan (1991) have criticized
as action research, conversations with
opment department providing technical
schools for their fragmented approach
peers about the beliefs and assumptions
assistance and functioning as a service
to change. School improvement too
that guide their instruction, and reflec-
often has been based on fad rather than
center to support the work of the
tive practices (e.g., journal keeping).
on a clear, compelling vision of the
schools.
school system's future. This, in turn,
Changes in Staff
m From a focus on adult needs to a
has led to one-shot staff development
Development
focus on student needs and learning
workshops with no thought given to
outcomes. Rather than basing staff
follow-up or to how the new technique
Results-driven education, systems
fits in with those that were taught in
development solely upon the percep-
thinking, and constructivism are pro-
previous ;ears. In the worst case,
tions of educators regarding what they
ducing profound changes in how staff
need (e.g., to learn about classroom
teachers are asked to implement poorly
development is conceived and imple-
understood innovations with little
management), staff development
mented. Some of the most important
support and assistance, and before they
planning processes are more often
of these changes are:
are able to approach mastery, the
beginning by determining the things
school has moved on to another area.
students need to know and be able
From individual development to
it
to do and working backward to the
individual development and organi-
An orientation to outcomes and sys-
knowledge, skills, and attitudes re-
zational development. Too often we
tems thinking has led to strategic
quired of educators if those student
have expected dramatic changes in
planning at the district, school, and
outcomes are to be realized. This shift
schools based solely on staff develop-
department levels. Clear, compelling
does not negate the value of teachers'
ment programs intended to help indi-
mission statements and measurable
perceptions regarding their needs, but
vidual teachers and administrators
objectives expressed in terms of student
rather places those needs within a
do their jobs more effectively. An
outcomes give guidance to the type of
larger context.
important lesson from the past few
staff development activities that
years, however, nas been that
From training that one attends
would best serve district and school
improvements in individual perfor-
away from the job as the primary
goals. In turn, district offices such as
mance alone are insufficient to produce
delivery system for staff development
staff development and curriculum see
the results we desire.
3
MINI
Vol. 3 Issue 3, Winter 1995
6
performance for everyone who
who provide consultation, planning,
to multiple forms of job-embedded
affects student learning. To meet the
and facilitation services, as well as
learning. Critics have long argued that
training. Staff developers are more
educational challenges of the 21st
too much of what passes as staff devel-
century, everyone who affects student
frequently called on today to facilitate
opment is "sit and get" in which educa-
learning must continually upgrade his
meetings or to assist various work
tors are passive recipients of received
or her skillsschool board trustees,
groups (e.g., a school faculty, the
wisdom. Likewise, a great deal of staff
superintendent's cabinet, a school
superintendents and other central office
development could be thought of as "go
improvement team) solve problems or
administrators, principals, teachers, the
and get" because "learning" has typi-
various categories of support staff (e.g.,
develop long-range plans. While staff
cally meant leaving the job to attend a
aides, secretaries, bus drivers, custodi-
developers will continue to provide
workshop or other event.
ans), and parents and community
training in instructional areas, results-
members who serve on policy-making
driven education and systems thinking
While well-designed training programs
boards and planning committees.
have placed teachers, administrators,
followed by coaching will continue to
and school employees in new roles
be the preferred method for developing
From staff development as a
(e.g., team leader, strategic planning
certain skills, school employees will
"frill" that can be cut during difficult
team member) for which training in
also learn through such diverse means
financial times to staff development
areas such as conducting effective
as conducting action research, partici-
as an essential and indispensable
meetings will be required for success-
pating in study groups or small-group
process without which schools cannot
ful performance.
problem solving, observing peers,
hope to prepare young people for
keeping journals, and becoming in-
citizenship and productive employ-
From staff development provided
volved in improvement processes (e.g.,
by one or two departments to staff
ment. Both the development of school
participating in curriculum develop-
development as a critical function
employees and significant changes in
ment or school improvement planning).
and major responsibility performed
the organizations in which they work
by all administrators and teacher
From an orientation toward the
are required if schools are to adequately
leaders. Job-embedded staff develop-
prepare students for life in a world that
transmission of knowledge and skills
is becoming increasingly more com-
to teachers by "experts" to the study
ment means that superintendents,
plex. Fortunately, results-driven educa-
assistant superintendents, curriculum
by teachers of the teaching and
tion and systems thinking provide us
supervisors, principals, and teacher
learning processes. Teachers will
with the intellectual understanding and
leaders, among others, must see them-
spend an increasingly larger portion of
selves as teachers of adults and view
the means to create the necessary
their work day in various processes that
the development of others as one of
reforms.
assist them in continually improving
their most important responsibilities.
their understanding of the teaching and
The shifts described in this article are
Individuals who perform these roles are
learning process. Action research, study
increasingly being held accountable for
significant and powerful. They are
groups, and the joint planning of
their performance as planners and
essential to the creation of learning
lessons, among other processes, will be
communities in which all members
implementers of various forms of staff
regularly used by teachers to refine
development.
students, teachers, principals, and
their instructional knowledge and skills.
support staffare both learners and
From a focus on generic instruc-
As responsibility for staff development
teachers. All of the things described
tional skills to a combination of
above will serve to unleash the most
has been spread throughout the school
generic and content-specific skills.
system, the role of the staff develop-
powerful source of success for all
studentsthe daily presence of adults
ment department has become even
While staff development related to
more important. Staff development
who are passionately committed to
cooperative learning, mastery learning,
departments are assisting teachers and
their own lifelong learning within
and mastery teaching, among other
organizations that are continually
topics, will continue to have its place, administrators by offering training and
ongoing support in acquiring the
renewing themselves.
more staff development of various
forms will focus on specific content knowledge and skills necessary to
assume new responsibilities. Staff
areas such as mathematics, science,
References
developers, among their other responsi-
language arts, and social studies.
bilities, provide one-to-one coaching
Recent studies have revealed the
Fullan, M. 1991.
The New Meaning of
of these individuals in their new roles
importance of teachers possessing a
New York: Teachers
Educational Change.
deeper understanding of both their
and facilitate meetings that are best
College Press
led by individuals who are outside of
academic disciplines and of specific
Sarason, S. 1990.
The Predictable Failure
a particular group.
pedagogical approaches tailored to
San Francisco:
of Educational Reform.
those areas.
Jossey-Bass.
From teachers as the primary
From staff developers who func- recipients of staff development
New
Senge, P. 1990.
The Fifth Discipline.
York: Doubleday.
tion primarily as trainers to those
to continuous improvement in
7
4
The ERIC Review
PROFESSIONAL
TEACHER
DEVELOPMENT
by Mary E. Dilworth and David G. Imig
The challenges and rewards
and the opportunity to acquire the
colleagueship, and the provision of
of the teaching profession
knowledge and skills needed to
professional growth opportunities for
have never been greater.
instruct and prepare all American
teachers" (Lieberman and Miller,
The range and type of information that
students for the next century.
1990).
students need to know far exceeds that
of previous decades, and the academic
The goal suggests that practicing teach-
This article offers a brief profile of
expectations for all students are in-
ers are key to the transformation of
teachers in the 1990s and the expecta-
creasing in virtually every state and
schools and that in order for teachers
to
tions for their performance and devel-
community. The nation's schools
are
lead the reform efforts, they need to be
opment. It highlights ways in which
more racially, ethnically, and linguisti-
offered expanded and enriched profes-
new and seasoned teachers are develop-
cally diverse than at any other point in
sional development experiences. Such
ing a repertoire of skills and knowledge
history, and there is much discussion
experiences should be tied directly to
that complement education reform
about how all students will meet the
the emerging stuthrt performance
efforts.
merging subject-matter standards.
standards and be :/Nltinuous, site-based,
Most school systems seek to transform
job-embedded, tc v-ther-designed, and
their schools to respond to a host of
Who is Teaching?
organizationally I.) Bused. Professional
issues, ranging from increased student
development programs with these
expectations to the conditions that
The teaching r nks are as large and
characteristics have the stature to be
students must confront in their
vibrant as they have ever been. The
commu-
viewed as essential or core activities
nities. It is clear that caring and
com-
number of KI2 teachers in public and
that will not be discarded
or diminished
petent teachers are vital to the success
private schools has increased from 1.9
each time there is a budget crisis.
of these initiatives and equally clear
million in 1955, when baby boomers
that preservice and inservice teacher
were spending their first days in el-
Professional development is an integral
professional development must
ementary school, to approximately 2.8
part of current efforts to transform and
change to equip teachers to meet
million in 1993, as the baby boomers'
revitalize American education. The
these challenges.
children began graduating from the
President's education reform agenda
nation's high schools and colleges
focuses on shifting significant
resources
The designation of "teacher education
(U.S. Department of Education, 1993a,
to professional development. The
and professional development"
p. 74). As this wave of young people
as one
promise of high-quality education for
of the National Education Goals
works its way through school, the
all children is dependent not only
on a
(added to the original six in mid-1994)
demand for additional teachers will
total restructuring of schools, but also
is genuine recognition that well-
on the knowledge and commitment of
prepared teachers are essential to all
practitioners to restructuring. As school
education reform '_fforts. Specifically,
reform proponents Ann Lieberman
Mary E. Dilworth is Director of the
and
the goal states:
Lynne Miller state, "... for school
ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and
Teacher Education and Senior Director,
restructuring to occur, a combination of
By the year 2000, the nation's
Research and Information, for the
factors must be present at the
same time
teaching force will have access to
American Association of Colleges for
and over timeincluding leadership.
Teacher Education (AACTE) in
programs for continued improve-
a shared mission, school goals, neces-
Washington, D.C.; David G. Imig is
ment of their professional skills
sary resources, the promotion of
AACTE's Chief Executive Officer.
5
Vol. 3 Issue 3, Winter 1995
likely escalate before it subsides
Increasingly, the teaching force
a
con-
students of varying backgrounds
decade from now. It is also anticipated
sists of experienced teachers, trained in
(Dilworth, 1990, p. 5).
that the supply of beginning and "re-
traditional programs; novice teachers
entry" teachers will be sufficient to
likely trained in a reformed teacher
Although education reform initiatives
meet the demand. However, demand
education program; and a few teachers
offer great promise, researchers
suggest
will continue to be particularly high for
experienced in a profession other than
that they also pose significant chal-
qualified teachers of color, bilingual
teaching. There also remain a signifi-
lenges to teachers as individuals and
teachers; and teachers in mathematics,
cant number of teachers teaching on
as members of a wider professional
science, and special education.
emergency certificates or teaching
community. According to Judith Little
subjects for which they have had little
(1993), ".
.. one test of teachers'
The adequate supply of teachers
training. This range in experience,
may
professional development is its capacity
be attributed to the urgent call from
skill, and knowledge presents
an
to equip teachers individually and
reform reports of the 1980s for the
enormous challenge and opportunity
collectively to act as shapers, promot-
"best and the brightest" to enter teach-
for those responsible for professional
ers, and well-informed critics of re-
ing. Since that time, enrollment in
development.
form" (p. 130). At the same time,
traditional teacher education
programs
Little cautions against leveling full
has burgeoned, and alternative teacher
responsibility for implementing educa-
Expectations for Teacher
certification programs designed to
tion reforms on teachers. She has
Development
encourage career-changers to enter the
identified the following five
areas
profession have flourished. There
are
as being integrally tied to enhanced
Given the current school and teaching
hundreds of revived Future Educators
teaching and therefore essential to
environment, expectations for practic-
of America clubs and specialty high
professional development: reforms
ing teachers are well-defined, but
schools, primarily in urban areas, that
in subject-matter teaching; equity for
particularly challenging. The reform
have been established for aspiring
diverse student populations; changes
literature of the past decade clearly
educators. This pool of beginning
in the nature, extent, and
use of assess-
indicates that:
teachers is expected to be well-
ment; the social organization of
prepared, given a host of new pro-
schools; and the professionalization
11111111111111MBINIMININMEE,
gram completion, certification, and
of teaching. Each suggests the need
licensing requirements. In addition,
for teachers to gain new knowledge
approximately 42 percent of K-12
Demand will
con-
and enhanced skills.
classroom teachers have a master's
tinue to be particularly
degree, and roughly 5 percent
possess
Authors Mark Smylie and John
educational specialist or doctoral
high for qualified
teach-
Conyers (1991) identify three needs
degrees, creating a current teaching
related to professional development
ers of color; bilingual
force with more years of formal
in the restructured K-12 school
education than at any other period in
teachers; and teachers
environment. They contend that
the nation's history (U.S. Department
rapid changes in the characteristics,
in mathematics,
sci-
of Education, 1993a, p. 78).
conditions, and learning needs of
ence, and special
students will continue; that knowl-
The demographic profile of the
5 5
edge about teaching and learning
education.
teacher in the 1990s, by and large,
will expand dramatically; and that
remains the same as it has for de-
schools will face ongoing pressures
cades. The typical American teacher
for accountability and reform. They
is a white female in her early forties,
conclude that "these conditions will
who vas trained in a traditional teacher
Today's teachers are expected
to
create unprecedented demands
education program, works in a rural
or
have a firm grasp on the
content
for the development of teachers'
small-town public school system, and
of the courses that they teach, the
knowledge and skills" (p. 12)
makes an average of $35,334
per year
capability to apply this knowledge
(National Education Association, 1992,
in a classroom setting, the skills
The mandate for reform in teacher
p. 16; U.S. Department of Education,
to devise appropriate learning
development suggests a variety of
1993a, p. 45). These typical teachers
tools, the ability to make in-
training opportunities that
go far be-
contrast in age and experience with
an
formed assessments of student's
yond the text-driven postbaccalaureate
increasing number of younger, "newly
work, and the inclination to
teacher education programs of the
past
minted" college graduates, who
com-
analyze their own work as well
as
and the traditional 1-day inservice
prise approximately 27 percent of
new
the work of others in the school
workshops of the present. As
one team
hires in public school systems, and
environment. Further, there is
of authors states, "Fortunately for
a
who have experienced more rigorous
demographic imperative that these
students, teachers do not stop learning
expectations and diverse experiences
new teachers will be culturally
when workshops are not offered"
as part of their training program. Older
diverse as "ell as culturally
aware
(Hirsh and Ponder, 1991, p. 45).
career-changers are also increasing
in order to effectively educate
in number (U.S. Department of
Education, 1993b, p. 9).
6
9
The ERIC Review
Up until now, college-based
profes-
for teachers throughout
their careers, a
sional development
designed to develop
programs have
new knowledge
number of prevailing
concepts must be
been criticized for focusing
and skills related specifically
too much
to their
abandoned. Smylie and Conyers
(1991)
on the methods of teaching and schools and classrooms.
too
Providers of
suggest that we must recast
inservice
little on subject-matter
inservice programs need
content. They
to consider,
programs to reflect the following
have also been criticized
however, that teachers have
for providing
little time
paradigm shifts:
too few relevant learning
during the school day
experiences
to pause, reflect
too late in a prospective
on practice, or conduct research.
teacher's study
Ways
From deficit-based to
compe-
to allow for analysis and
need to be found to provide
reflection.
practicing
tency-based approaches, in
which
Similarly, inservice staff
teachers with such time.
development
teachers' knowledge, skills,
and experi-
programs have been criticized for
being
ences are considered assets. Profes-
Reflection has
narrow in design and purpose and
for
proven useful in the pre-
sional development organized
disregarding what practitioners
paration of prospective
teachers who
consider necessary and
are asked to maintain student
important.
jour-
Inservice programs have
nals and portfolios. Guided
been char-
by
g
acterized as having little
seasoned professionals,
meaning to
beginning
inservice staff
teachers beyond the specific
teachers use these tools
informa-
to under-
tion provided; they
stand their own teaching
are often "judged
development programs
strengths
on the criterion of delivering
and weaknesses. Journals
the
and portfo-
have been criticized
goods, not whether they
lios also show promise for
were re-
experi-
ceived or used" (Hirsh
enced classroom teachers
and Ponder,
for being narrow in
and for
1991, p. 44).
college faculty to examine
their
design and purpose
beliefs, knowledge, and
experiences
It is important to
over time.
note that the beliefs
and for disregarding
that preservice and
practicing teach-
what practitioners con-
ers already possess about schooling,
From learning separately
to
teaching, and learning
may affect
learning together, in which
practic-
sider necessary and
their behavior in the
ing teachers are jointly
5
classroom and
responsible
how they learn themselves.
5
for their work in
important.
Teachers
classrooms, and
use their beliefs to make
their wisdom and
sense of
experiences are
their experiences; they
perceived as professional
sometimes
resources.
y
preserve these beliefs even
Smylie and Conyers
as teacher
note that this
Milli11111.
educators attempt to change
conception has important
them.
implica-
For example, prospective
tions for how schools
according to this approach
and practic-
are organized,
will, in the
ing teachers who believe
in other words,
authors' view, shift teachers
that teaching
as places for teachers to
away from
and learning are
learn as well
dependency on external
synonymous with
as to teach. This paradigm
sources for the
telling and remembering
shift addresses
can be uncom-
solution to their problems
one of the most perva-
and toward
fortable with more reflective
sive conditions of
ap-
professional growth and
classroom teachers
self-reliance in
proaches. Teachers who
isolation, or the inability
believe it is
instructional decision making.
to learn and to
This
their job to make things
communicate with colleagues
interesting for concept has emerged as crucial
in the
in
students may reject the idea
place where it counts
initial teacher education
that stu-
mostthe school.
as prospective
dents can find subjects
Perhaps one of the
inherently
teachers become increasingly
most popular
diverse in
interesting. Some research
mechanisms for "learning
on learning
background, age, and experience.
together" is
Such
to teach has adopted
a "conceptual the professional development
a model also helps teachers
school or
understand
change" orientation, exploring
the diverse KI2 student
clinical school. These
the prior
professional
population
knowledge thin novices bring
development sites offer
(Zimpher and Ashburn, 1992;
to teach-
practicing
Delpit,
ing and tracking the
teachers, prospective
effects of teacher
1988). Well-designed
case studies,
teachers, and
education in modifying
college faculty the
which allow practicing
these prior
opportunity to
teachers to
beliefs (Bird, Anderson,
exchange pedagogical
learn from and value the
Sullivan, and
knowledge and
experiences
Swidler, 1992).
ideas at school (see
of others, are becoming
"Professional
more common
as training instruments.
Development Schools: Their
Role in
In order to be of
Teacher Development"
greater value to
on p. 16).
teachers and students,
a From replication to
presery ice and
reflection, in
inservice professional
ff
From centralization
which practicing teachers
development
to decentrali-
focus less on
must be reconceptualized.
zation, in which the
the transfer of knowledge
Rather than
role of a school
and strategy
seeing each stage of
and more on analytical
a teacher's profes- system's central administration
and reflective
shifts
sional life as distinct and
from identifying and
learning. Smylie and
separate, we
organizing staff
Conyers suggest
need a more holistic view
of the devel-
that this reflective approach
development activities
to supporting
will
opment of a teacher from novice
and facilitating those
sharpen teachers' skills in
to
which school-
problem
advanced practitioner. In
based staff have determined
solving, determining
order to
students' needs,
are impor-
establish a rich learning
tant and necessary.
and conducting action
environment
research that is
Decentralization
allows for more tailored
professional
Vol. 3 Issue 3, Winter
1995