ERIC ED370550: A Theoretical Framework for Diagrams and Information Graphics in Research and Education.

8 Pages·1993·0.29 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
IR 055 003
ED 370 550
Hardin, Pris
AUTHOR
A Theoretical Framework for Diagrams and Information
TITLE
Graphics in Research and Education.
93
PUB DATE
8p.; In: Visual Literacy in the Digital Age: Selected
NOTE
Readings from the Annual Conference of the
International Visual Literacy Association (25th,
Rochester, New York, October 13-17, 1993); see IR 055
055.
Viewpoints (Opinion/Position Papers, Essays, etc.)
PUB TYPE
Speeches/Conference Papers (150)
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*Diagrams; *Graphic Arts; Graphs; Illustrations;
DESCRIPTORS
Models; Visual Aids; *Visual Learning; *Visual
Literacy
Graphic Representation; *Visual Thinking
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
Information graphics or diagrams are two-dimensional
maps of relationships that present information. Creators and
interpreters of diagrams need to know what makes some diagrams more
effective in communicating information. This paper suggests a
theoretical framework for diagram classification to make this
possible. This framework consists of two related continua along the
x-axis: categories of information structure, ranging from equidistant
interval through ordinal to nominal, appear in the upper, horizontal
coordinate; and categories of layout and design, ranging from
technical through formal to informal, appear along the lower,
horizontal coordinate. The definition of equidistant
interval/technical array- provides a clear division from the rest of
The definitions of ordinal and nominal
the horizontal continum
categories also yield an explicit break. The formal/informal boundary
is not as clearly defined. As a result, the farther a diagram moves
to the right along the framework, the more intuitive the decisions
become regarding diagram features. From this framework, research
questions into graphic literacy could begin by focusing upon the
effectiveness of various diagrams based on the type of communication
used to convey information. (Contains 14 references.) (JLB)
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Diagrams
A Theoretical Framework for
and
Information Graphics
in
Research and Education
by Pris Hardin
Page Craft
1970 NW Hayes Avenue
Corvallis, og 97330
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
Alice Walker
2
PEST COPY AVAILABLE
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."
A Theoretical Framework for
Diagrams and Information Graphics
in Research and Education
Pris Hardin
Pervasive Graphic Information
Objectively, we realize that clarification and
understanding only occur in the mind of the
In a time labeled the information
age,
diagram "reader" and not in the diagram. But
graphic information abounds. New technolo-
diagram users, both creators and interpreters,
gies promote easier creation of graphic
need to know what makes some diagrams
information, old formats einerge with
new
more effective in fostering clear communica-
names, and designers explore fresh ap-
tion. This paper suggests first a theoretical
proaches to presenting information visually.
framework for diagram classification. Then, it
Whether we call them information graphics
or
proposes areas of investigation that should
diagrams, two-dimensional maps of relation-
lead to more effective communication in
some
ships present information in classrooms,
categories of diagrams.
board rooms, promotional displays,
news
reports, books and on TV screens, computer
Where Information Structure
monitors and billboards.
Meets Graphic Design
Good diagrams promote understanding
The link between information
so well that their design elements are virtually
structure
and diagram format is the vital
transparent. As long as layouts contribute to
core of a
diagram's reason for being. A classification
the communicative power of diagrams,
we
take them for granted; diagram "readers"
system for diagrams should consider both the
structure of the information to be dia-
seldom mention the diagram itself unless its
grammed and diagrammatic format.
format or design elements prove to be confus-
ing.
In How to Create High-impact Business
Presentations
, Kupsh and Graves (1992) divide
Even dictionaries make broad assump-
diagrams into two categories: "place" and
tions about the effectiveness of diagrams. One
"process." By acknowledging information
typical definition reads:
structure, the authors move in a positive
1. A plan, sketch, drawing or outline,
direction The "place" category
covers such
not necessarily representational, designed
divergent schema as maps, floor plans and
to demonstrate or explain something or
organizational charts. The "process"
category
clarify the relationship existing between
includes information like flow diagrams, and
the parts of a whole.... 3. A chart
or
time lines. In actual practice, the place/
graph. (The American Heritage Dictionary
process designations yield broad, sometimes
of the English LAnguage
. 1970. p 363)
overlapping, categoriesis an organizational
'ft
Most dictionaries surveyed present
chart place or process? Which
category
0
definitions asserting that diagrams clarify
includes graphs that present information
relas4onships and promote understanding.
plotted along two or more coordinates?
0
3
three-part continuum running from technical
Kupsh and Graves treat diagrams addressing
through formal to informal for use in catego-
numerical orders, juxtaposed and plotted in a
rizing diagram formats and design devices. In
separate chapter on graphs. Yet, by definition,
Figure 1, the two continua run parallel
they are diagrams.
categories of information structure appear
A complete classification system for
along the upper horizontal coordinate and
diagrams must accommodate the full range of
categories of layout and design along the
schematics; place, process and static numeri-
lower, horizontal coordinate. The left-most
cal plots. In his introduction to Diagraphics,
equidistant interval and
pair of categories
Nigel Holmes (Japan Creators' Association,
technical_carry definitions that yield a neatly
1986) addresses the role of numbers in graphs:
defined border between them and the remain-
"Unexplained numbers are not
ing categories to the right. The definitions of
information. We mistakenly refer to the
ordinal and nominal also yield a clear demar-
'Information Explosion' in the world
cation. However, the boundary between
today. There is no information explo-
formal and informal is more of a continuum.
sionit's a numbers explosion, and it
Hence a breakdown in neat, enclosed regions
falls to designers to turn the numbers into
and the introduciion of a less explicit transi-
useful information." (Wildbur, 1989, p 57)
tion. Vertical placement represents the ex' ...t
INFORMATION STRUCTURE
Nominal
Ordinal
Equidistant Interval
Most graphs
44:vs
4;az
\SSS:SS
Scale floor plans
r
st.,
44.
s
'as
.ra's
Informal
Formal
Technical
LAYOUT CHARACTERISTICS
along the x-axis. The field
Figure 1 - A schema presenting two, correlated continua
encompasses all information graphics.
to which all the details within a diagrammatic
A search of the literature for organiza-
array conform to its place on the horizontal
tional categories for information stnicture and
continJadiagrams with the most homoge-
diagram layout yields two continua that may
neous treatment of data appear toward the
be adapted to fit the need. From statistical
top of the field; those with mixed approaches
literature comes a continuum of information
to information presentation fit into the matrix
structure ranging from equidistant interval
farther down the image.
through ordinal to nominal. From cultural
anthropology (Hall, 1959) comes another
lEST COPY MAE
A brief clarification of how the categories
The rules governing design of ordinal/
of terms work together follows.
formal diagrams are less explicit than those
governing equidistant interval graphs,
maps
Equidistant Interval/technical
Diagrams
Equidistant interval data, information
VW'S
that conforms to diagrammatic
arrays, must
have a minimum of two coordinates (x,
y and
sometimes z); these diagrams must conform
to constraints of an interval scale (Figure 2).
The literature defining accepted procedures is
easily identified; violations of the published
rules constitute a "wrong" diagram. This is
a
fundamental trait of Edward Hall's definition
of technical norms. That is, we can readily
Figure 3 Samples of ordinal/formal
diagrams:
and drawings. Violations of the rules for
ordinal/formal diagrams only
occur when a
node or entity is placed out of
proper se-
quence in elation to other nodes or when
linkages draw untrue connections between
nodes. When readers of ordinal/formal
diagrams locate an error in diagram
construc-
tion, they are able explain how to
correct the
error. The "formal" designation connotes
Figure 2 - Samples of equidistant
knowledge that we learn in organized train-
ing situationsat home, at school, in
our
interval/technical diagrams.
work place; knowledge for which
we can state
structural and formatting guidelines. Hierar-
identify rules for plotting and presenting such
chical charts, flow diagrams and
process
information as graphs, floor plans and
maps.
schemata fall into this category Sequential
Peter Wildbur (1989, p. 46) cites such
a rule
information usually translates into
an overall
when presenting a 19th century graph by
directionality in diagram layout.
William Playfair that omits 20 years of rel-
Diagrammers can agree upon a starting
point
evant data. Today, he asserts, we would
for an ordinal/formal diagram.
"hardly accept" the omission. William
was
not playing fair!
Nominal/informal Diagrams
Ordinal/formal Diagrams
As maps of relationships, nominal/
informal diagrams feature multiple directions
Ordinal/formal diagrams display infor-
and reveal connections in the form of
proxim-
mation that has sequential structure along
at
ity, overlapping and networks
or webs.
least one coordinate. Ordinal in nature, the
Successful placement of nodes and
connectors
scale of a time line or flow chart along
one
encodes intensity of relationship and
relative
continuum may vary from segment to
seg-
importance. Temporal, sequential factors
may
ment within the diagram (Figure 3).
be present but they apply only
to small
Categorization of diagram types from
ents of the network rather than to an
segm
equidistant interval/technical through
overall, coordinated flow of information
ordinal/formal to nominal/informal offers a
(Figure 4). Nominal/informal diagrams may
broad perspective within which research and
be "readable" starting at any of several points
discussion of many important details of
in the network. Sociograms, cluster diagrams
diagrammatic communication can take place.
and brainstorming networks typically repre-
The many information types and diagram
sent nominal information.
formats in current use have contributed to
imprecise speculation and inappropriate
comparisons; understanding the difference
between "apples and oranges" and "apples
and doorknobs" would avoid some serious
errors. With vigorous discussion and some
modification, the framework depicted in
Figure 1 may evolve into a common ground
for more precise investigation of diagramsa
powerful communication device.
Diagrams as Models of Thought
For the moment, consider diagrams that
belong in the right half or two-thirds of the
proposed schema. The farther the:,
INFORMATION STRUCTURE
Figure 4 - Samples of nominal/informal
diagrams.
The rules for constructing such arrays
depend upon design devices like grouping,
chunking, superimposition and partitioning.
Users of nominal/informal diagrams recog-
nize incorrect diagram features easily but may
find difficulty agreeing on how to correct the
LAYOUT CHARACTERISTICS
problem; the rules for nominal/informal
Figure 5 - The indeterminate edge between
diagrams appear to be held intuitively. When
formal and informal diagram
the diagram is well designed, the message
categories.
comes across clearly; both creators and users
take the format and design devices for
diagrammer/interpreter moves to the right
ganted. By contrast, weak layouts obscure
along Figure l's continuum, the more intui-
the information structure leaving interpreters
puzzled. Reactions may be srlf-critical, "I
tive become the decisions regarding meaning-
ful size and placement of nodes. The same is
seldom understand diagrams very well."
true for the rendering details and graphic
Defining Boundaries Between
style of connectors. (NOTE: Even in diagrams
placed at the far right edge of the continuum,
Categories
relationships indicated by connectors are
The definition of equidistant interval/
either correct or incorrect. This is a fundamen-
technical arrays provides a neat, clean divi-
tal factor separating diagrams, as statements
sion from the rest of the horizontal con-
of relationships, from art.)
tinuum. Definitions of ordinal and nominal
The greater the intuitive contribution, the
categories of information also yield an explicit
harder it is to make logical, verbal explana-
break between the two. The formal/informal
tions for diagram layout decisions. At the
boundary is, however, clouded (Figure 5).
extreme right side of the continuum, cluster
diagrams created by brainstormers may
their fields. But we expect the language arts
commence anywhere on the pae and sprawl
teacher to have the special know-how to
lopsidedly in any direction that intuition
evoke the greatest writing skill from students.
directs. But, evidence suggests that there are,
Who then shall we look to for the special
indeed, commonly held rules guiding these
expertise to teach diagramming skills? How
intuitive decisions (Hardin, 1981). Advocacy
will these teachers learn what diagramming
for creating such diagrams as aids to learning,
skills to teach or how to teach them?
writing and organizing abounds (Buzan, 1974;
A circular dilemma emerges. Whether we
Hardin, 1983; Rico, 1983).
learn from practicing designers or from more
The visual or graphic literacy surrounding
formal research, we must know more about
diagrams deserves further investigation. Is the
diagram dynamics in order to improve
value of creating ordinal and nominal, free-
diagrammatic instruction. With better instruc-
layout diagrams limited only to the
tion, knowledgeable diagrammers will be
diagrammers themselves? Do the rules for
available to conduct investigadons to learn
layout change when diagrams present infor-
how diagrams work!
mation to viewers who did not participate in
Research quef,H )ns could begin by
the creation of the array? Wtat layout and
focusing upon the effectiveness of various
design devices make free-lay out diagrams
design devices in the context of communicat-
most meaningful to diagram interpreters?
ing various types of information. The under-
Designers not only know how to incorpo-
lying hypothesis for such research is that
rate diagrammatic layout and design devices
design format and selected design devices
into powerful diagrams, they trust in a visual
inform and influence understanding of the
literacy for diagrams among viewers.
diagram; that diagrammers can avoid disso-
.
One of the spin-offs from the mass
nance between information structure and
media is the increased exposure of the
layout strategies if they know more about
reader and viewer to a variety of sophisti-
how these two elements of a diagram interact.
cated graphic treatments such as picto-
What types of arrows are most effective
grams and diagrammatic techniques
for various types of information? ...tech-
which means that the designer can assume
nical label pointers, directional flow in
a familiarity with certain forms and
organizational charts, descriptions of
treatments,
a form of graphic literacy,
flow paths in process schema, or links in
which was not the case even a few years
cluster diagams?
ago. (Wildbur, p., 1989, p 7)
What devices best show linkages in
As long as Wildbur's "certain forms and
selected information categories? ...prox-
treatments" remain the province of designers,
imity, framed boxes, linear alignment,
diagrams composed by non-designers will
lines, arrows?
express only their untrained intuition.
Does overall thrust of diagram flow
Two remedies seem obvious. By investi-
communicate a certain type of informa-
gating diagrammatic syntax, we can better
tion to viewers? What are the messages
prepare ourselves and those who come after
communicated by differing points of
us to communicate information through
origin; flows from left to right, diagonal
diagrams. Also, we should encourage non-
or top to bottom; twisting, bending or
designers to produce diagrams frequently on
radial paths?
the theory that practice will increase skill. We
do not expect language arts students to
How do changes in layout flow commu-
become better writers without practicing and
nicate information within a diagram?
critiquing writing; we should promote
Investigators should not have to look far
increased diagram production and critiquing,
for tools with which to conduct diagram
too.
research. While serious studies of diagram
Writing across the curriculum is a great
effectiveness remain outside of the main
ideamath and science teachers should be
stream of research, some efforts exist (Hardin,
teaching the importance of writing skill in
1983). The advent of computer
programs for
AN
Recent experience with Inspiration,TM a
creating diagrams should be one of the
versatile software package designed for
greatest aids to diagram research. Efforts to
brainstorming, organizing and project/
create such software date back to the earliest
presentation management, suggests that it
programming endeavors. It is hardly surpris-
could become a vital tool for the conduct of
ing that the first developments were in
diagram research.
support of equidistant interval/technical
diagrams. Gradually, software is emerging
Inspiration has already found enthusiastic
that ventures into the ordinal/formal and
support among educators. The company
nominal/informal categories. Whatever the
produces a special collection of diagntms and
type of information supported by a computer-
diagramming ideas contributed by teachers.
driven diagram generator, it's effectiveness
This publication not only offers a broadly
will depend upon the versatility offered to
based array of lesson ideas but it exemplifies
diagrammers to choose from a broad range of
the basic premise of this papera better
diagram formats and design devices.
understanding of the visual literacy surround-
ing diagrams is needed to assure more
Arrow styles offer a good example of this
powerful communication in the diagrammatic
problem. The choice of squared-off, symmetri-
arena. Inspiration's adoption in the classroom
cal arrows as opposed to swooping, dynamic
endorses its suitability as a research tool; it is
curved arrows ought to be related to the type
relatively easy to learn, offers an increasingly
of information the arrow serves. When rigid,
broad array of diagrammatic formats and
blocky arrows are the only ones available to
design devices, and allows for several mana-
the diagram designer, they serve poorly in
gerial controls that would enable researchers
describing node connections involving speed,
to adapt it to a research design.
fluidity, uncertainty or intermittence. Yet,
many diagrams employ the blocky, squared
off arrows for poor reasonsthe template
only had one kind of arrow or the computer
program only makes squared-off arrows.
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Dutton & Co., Inc: NY 1974
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