ERIC ED343770: American Indians and Alaska Natives with Disabilities.

44 Pages·1991·2.1 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
RC 018 629
ED 343 770
Johnson, Marilyn J.
AUTHOR
American Indians and Alaska Natives with
TITLE
Disabilities.
Department of Education, Washington, DC. Indian
SPONS AGENCY
Nations At Risk Task Force.
PUB DATE
91
43p.; In: Indian Nations At Risk Task Force
NOTE
Commissioned Papers. See RC 018 612.
Information Analyses (070)
PUB TYPE
MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
EDRS PRICE
Alaska Natives; *American Indian Education; American
DESCRIPTORS
Indians; ',Curriculum Development; *Disabilities;
*Educational Diagnosis; Elementary Secondary
Education; *Special Education; Special Needs
Students; *Student Evaluation; Student Placement;
Teaching Methods
Bilingual Special Education; Education for All
IDENTIFIERS
Handicapped Children Act
ABSTRACT
American Indian and Alaska Native children with
special needs experience the same ineffective and inefficient
services as other minority language children. This paper discusses
the special needs of Native children, assessment and curriculum
issues, and recommendatiwis for improvement. It provides statistics
for various categories of handicaps and for Native preschool
children, school-aged children, and adults. Some conditions affecting
Native children at high rates are described: learning disabilities,
fetal alcohol syndrome, communication disorders, hearing impairments,
and meningitis. Support for the education of disabled persons has
been secured through legislation, particularly P.L. 94-142, which
outlines procedures for screening, referral, assessment, placement,
and staffing. Nevertheless, assessment practices have been
criticized. Particularly relevant for Native students are criticisms
related to cultural and linguistic test bias, the creation of
self-fulfilling prophecies, and the widespread use and misuse of
standardized tests. Alternative assessment practices include academic
task analysis, pluralistic assessmont, culture-fair procedures, an
advocacy-oriented model, and addition of a sociocultural dimension.
Curriculum issues and recommendations are related to bilingual
special education, the Regular Education Initiative, early childhood
education, reading instruction, mathematics instruction, and
functional life skills. Also discussed are teacher shortages, parent
and community involvement, the need for preschool programs, and
future Native programming needs. This paper contains over 150
refeLo-s. (SV)
x*************rt***:****************************************************
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
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6.7
OA. Mt I
-111111
11.41
411 .1111-f
1.
.
American Indians and Alaska Natives with
Disabilities
U.s. DEPARTMENT Of EDUCMION
Mice ol Educational Research and lrnpnwernent
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
7
CENTER (ERIC)
ent heti been rOrbalCed IS
ThiS
dOCurn
reCeived trOrn the persOn or organilation
pnginating it
Marilyn J. Johnson
0 Minor changeS have Caen made to improv
reprodochon Quality
Points Ot valw of opinions stated in this docu-
ment do not necessarily represent official
OEFII POsitton or Policy
Introduction
with the language of law that protects them. The
capacities of the various educational institutions
The education of cultural and language
must be determined and the resources necessary
minority children with special needs has been
for fulfilling those needs must be recognized.
filled with controversy for decades. After years of
This paper attempts first, to describe the
spe-
hiding these children in homes, relegating them to
cial needs of American Indian and Alaska Native
obscure corners of schools, or isolating them in
children ar reported in various statistical reports
poorly staffed programs, America has gradually
and the Indian Nations at Risk (INAR) Task Force
modified its policies and practices in response to
hearings. Second,
it reminds us of the laws
litigation and legislation. If it were not for the
protecting the rights of these children. Third, it
courage of parents, enlightened educators, and
emphasizes educational efforts that are ap-
other supporters, the educational conditions for
propriate for their needs. Fourth, recommenda-
children with special needs would have remained
tions are advanced for implementation and reform.
in the dark ages of education. Yet, the changes that
have occurred, as a result of statute, regulation,
Statement of the Problem
and policy, have not swept away all the problems
facing these children. Therefore, we must be
American Indians and Alaska
vigilant in tE
protection of the educational oppor
tunities for children with special needs and
Natives and Special Education
monitor implementation of regulations, allocation
American Indian and Alaska Native children
of resources, and staffing of programs. Any slack-
with special needs have experienced the same in-
ening of effort will result in diminished effort by
effective and inefficient services as other language
school officials, policymakers, and tribal leaders.
minority children. Their needs have been ignored
Evaluations of American Indian and Alaska
or subjugated to the lowest levels of priority. One
Native education and subsequent decisions for
need not look far into the past to recognize the lack
reform which ignore the special educational needs
of concern accorded to special education programs.
of Native children cannot b.. tolerated. The
When resources of schools became strained, it was
humaneness of facilitating educational opror-
the special education students who used portable
tunities for Native children with disabilities has
buildings, basements, or buildings in most need of
been embraced by many. Yet, many other
repair. When materials were needed to provide a
educators have yet to be convinced of the benefits
culturally and linguistically appropriate program,
of education for disabled children. Resistance, lack
none were available. When staff were required to
of awareness, and iow priority have been major
meet the various co.aditions of need, few teachers
setbacks for implementation of special education
were certified tu prv.ide appropriate instruction.
services. It is true that providing an appropriate
In short, needs of students in special education
educational environment for special needs
were often last to be addressed and first to be
children is philosophically and pedagogically com-
reduced.
plex.
The needs of Indian children with special needs
The tribal leader, politician or even the most
cannot be excluded, limited, nor ignored in our
renowned Indian educators may have limited
evaluation and recommendation for changes in
training in the field of special education. Their
education for American Indian and Alaska Na-
visions of education, therefore may be blurred
tives. To continue in this vein is to exacerbate their
when dealing with Indian children with special
disabilities and to maintain their poshure as
needs. It is imperative that we gain clarity and
children at greatest risk. To provide spe al educa-
understanding on the extent of the needs of Native
tion and related services is to give our Native
children with disabilities. Leaders of tribes and
children with disabilities a chance at life and their
educational institutions must become familiar
families an opportunity to have pride in their
rtrY
AVAILABLE
indiLns Nations At Risk: Solutions for the 1990s
achievements striving toward contributing par-
redundant to make such a statement, it is impor-
ticipants in family, and community.
tant to note that in the delivery of service to Indian
children, their disabling condition does not
Population
preclude the presence of a cultural and language
base. They are not acultural. People with dis-
American Indians numbered 1.9 million people
based on the 1990 Census. Based on estimates for
abilities are members of their cultural group
the general population for the percentage of people
Acoma, Choctaw, Shoshone-Bannock, Navrkjo, and
who would likely be disabled which is 10 percent.
Yakima etc. Acknowledging this premise is to
It would be estimated that 190,000 American In-
recognize that the extent to which education and
dians, while three percent of the general popula-
services incorporate culture and language and
tion would have a significant level of disabilities.
their disability is to serve the entire individual.
American Indians, however, experience disability
Legislation
at 1 112 times the rate for the general population
(Morgan & O'Connell, 1986).
Legislation has been a leveraging mechanism
Indian children who require special education
through which support for disabled persons has
services in order to access education represent
been secured. Legislation which has had sig-
nearly 17 percent of the enrollment in the Bureau
nificant impact on assurances for people with dis-
of Indian Affairs and 9.88 percent of the public
abilities include: The Rehabilitation Act of 1973
school enrollment (O'Connell, 1987).
Based on
and subsequent amendments, amendments to The
these percentages and projected estimates from
Elementary and Secondary Act (ESEA) of 1976,
the OCR data, over 44,700 Indian children had
The Education for All Handicapped Act of 1974 and
subsequent amendments, (P.L.101-476, In-
been placed in special education, most of them in
dividuals with Disabilities Education Act)
the categories of learning disabilities and speech
impaired.
Developmental Disabilities Act of 1984, and the
It is important, however, to describe briefly and
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.
call attention to those behaviors which charac-
The Rehabilitation Act, Public Law 93-112
terize Native people both as individuals and as
enacted in 1973 included language which specifi-
cally addressed discrimination against persons
members of a tribal group. Characteristics might
with handicaps. Specifically, Section 504 of this
include the manner and language of greeting; pat-
legislation stated:
terns of interaction with family or tribal members;
expectations we have ofone another and with those
No otherwise qualified handicapped in-
we interact; vocabulary and language use in
dMdual in the United States, as defined in
English and/or native language; participory
section 7 (6), shall solely by reason of his
roles in ceremonies, social events, etc. For ex-
handicap, be excluded from the participation
in, be denied the befits of, or be subjected to
ample, when visiting one's family, protocol may
discrimination under any program or activity
require the visitors to shake hands with all those
receiving Federal financial assistance.
present. Verbal greetings may be defined by the
A 'handicapped individual' was defined as "...
age or status of an individual. Ceremonies or tribal
any individual who (a) has a physical or mental
rituals may hold expectations for family or clan
disability which for such individual constitutes or
members to contribute in terms of time, energy, or
results in a substantial handicap to employment
donation of food or other items. The use and ap-
and (b) can reasonably be expected to benefit in
propriateness of humor might be observed along
terms of employability from vocational rehabilita-
with acceptable topics of humor. Teasing may be
tion services ..." (Public Law 93-112 Section 7 (6)).
acceptable between certain members of the family
Amendments to The Elementary and Second
like uncle and nephew. These various aspects of
Education Act of 1976 provided grants to states
behavior are typically learned through observation
including the Bureau of Indian Affairs through
and in context. Thus, a norm for behavior is estab-
Title VI for special education projects. The BIA
lished. Those whose actions are beyond the norms
applied for and administered funds t.
develop
for behavior might not fit in as readily.
projects for Native children with special needs.
Native children with disabilities need also to
In 1974, the Education for All Handicapped Act,
have the same opportunities to learn acceptable
Public Law 94-142 was passed addressing specifi-
behaviors through observation and through situa-
cally education of children with disabilities.
tions where they can try out the behaviors in a safe
Parents and advocacy groups brought attention to
environment. Regardless of the disabling condi-
the exclusion of children with handicaps who were
tion, the children are American Indian and Alaska
being denied the right to an education. Two cases
language,
Natives first and all that it may entail
were particularly significant in securing the right
culture, values, and beliefs. While it may seem
2 3
.
. 4-
11110.r. 4140Ps.
Disabilities and Special Education
to an education for children with handicaps
Specifically, Section 130 stated that the
vices.
Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children
Commissioner "... may make grants to the govern-
(PARC) v. Pennsylvania (1971) and Mills v. Board
ing bodies of Indian tribes located on Federal and
of Education of D. C. (1972). Both cases were based
State reservations to pay 90 percent of the costs of
on equal protection of the law. Provision of a free
vocational rehabilitation services for handicapped
public education, if provided to all school-aged
American Indians residing on such reservations."
children, could not be denied to children with hand-
Authorization was given for appropriations to
icaps "on the basis of an unalterable trait
their
Indian tribes in "... the sum shall be not less than
handicap" (Turnbull & Turnbull, 1978 cited in
1/4 of 1 percent and not more than 1 percent of the
Baca & Cervantes, 1989). The act defines a hand-
amount under paragraph (1) as determined by the
icapped child as follows: mentally retarded, hard
Secretary." Presently, .14 tribes are recipients of
grants under this subsection. The 1986
of hearing, deaf; speech impaired, visually hand-
icapped, seriously emotionally disturbed, or-
reauthorization of the Rehabilitation Act included
thopedically impaired, other health impaired,
that "... where appropriate, may include services
deaf-blind, multihandicapped, or a specific learn-
traditionally used by Indian tribes" (Section 211
ing disability.
(b)). Inclusion of this part permits the use of cul-
Key elements contained in Public Law 94-142
turally unique services such as native healing for
which were meant to protect children from being
the purpose of rehabilitation.
misplaced in special education are as follows:
The Developmental Disabilities Act of'1984 was
enacted for purposes which included: (a) provision
Screening. Broad scale-testing proce-
of comprehensive services to persons with develop-
dures are employed to identify students
mental disabilities, (b) to assist States in planning
who may require more intensive assess-
activities, (c) to make grants for model programs,
ment.
demonstration programs, and training grants. The
ReferraL Appropriate specialists are con-
Act also included authority for the Secretary to
sulted about a student who may require
make grants for projects including those of "nation-
further assessment and special education
al significance
... which hold promise of expanding
services.
or otherwise improving services to persons with
Assessment. Information is systematical-
developmental disabilities (including Native
ly collected regarding the student's men-
Americans).
tal, social, academic, and psychological
The Americans with Disabilities Act of' 1990
performance to identify specific abilities
(Public Law 101-336) referred to as "civil rights"
and weaknesses.
legislation for people with disabilities was signed
into law in July 1990. This legislation was enacted
Staffing. An official meeting involves all
to "extend protection to people with disabilities in
concerned persons such as teacher and
the public and private sector oven when they are
speech therapist, concerning the education
not recipients of federal funds" (Brady, 1990).
and placement of a particular student. The
student's primary handicap, need for spe-
Natives with Disabilities
cialized services, and type of intervention
required are discussed during the staffing.
Background
Placement. Special education programs
A question often posed in varying ways has
offer a variety of placement configurations.
been, "Why are there so many more handicapped
Placement offerings reflect the various
people now than there used to be?" One factor is
types of assistance that students may re-
that medical care coupled with medical technology
quire (Gearhart, 1980, cited in Baca &
is much more readily available than it once was
Cervantes, 1989, p. 90).
resulting in increased survival rates. Thus, many
Public Law 94-142 also requires thet there be
more individuals have the chance to live longer
parental involvement in the educational process of
past childhood into adulthood. Secondly, legisla-
the child with a disability with the specific require-
tion which authorizes funds for services require
ment of 9nformed parental consent'. If a parent's
that recipients meet certain criteria, resulting in
primary language is other than English, the parent
the identification of individuals in order to meet
must be informed in the language they can under-
eligibility requirements. Thirdly, the number and
stand.
percentage of children with disabilities indicate
Subsequent amendments to the Rehabilitation
that American Indians and Alaska Natives ex-
Act were made in 1978 for establishment of
perience disabilities at a higher rate than the
American Indian Vocational Rehabilitation Ser-
3
Indians Nations At Rivk: Solutions for the 1990s
general population. Fetal alcohol syndrome, for
year. It was estimated that approximately 2,110 to
example occurs at particularly high rates in some
2,948 children on reservations with BIA schools
tribes. Other conditions have resulted from
might need, but were not receiving special educa-
suspected maternal exposure to radioactive areas
tion services. For the children receiving special
resulting from mining activitiee. Thus, irrespec-
education services (838), service providers in-
cluded one or more of the following: BIA, Head
tive of the causes for the Native children and their
disabling conditions, they are among us. The most
Start, IHS and public schools. Nearly one-fourth of
important questions are 'What are their needs?'
the 791 children with individual educational plans
and 'How can we meet those needs?'
(IEPs) were not receiving the full complement of
services prescribed in their IEPs. However, the
Need
number of children who are receiving inadequate
services may be an underestimate because IEPs
Disabling conditions occur at every stage of life
including stages prier to birth
conception and at
often contain services which agencies are able to
provide rather than those which represent the
the pre-natal stage. Children with disabilities may
experience delays in normal or avei age develop-
actual needs of the child.
ment in areas of: (e.) mental development, (b) sen-
School-Aged Children
sory abilities, (c) communication abilities, (d) social
A national study was conducted in 1987 to
development, and/or physical development. Disa-
identify problems and needs of American Indians
bling conditions can result from genetic anomalies
with handicaps (O'Connell, 1987). Data on the
(Down Syndrome), teratogenic substances like al-
cohol (fetal alcohol syndrome), and bacterial infec-
school-aged children was derived from two sources
.
tions like hemophilus influenza type B
the Bureau of In dian Affairs and the US Depart-
(meningitis).
ment of Education, Office of Civil Rights. These
The needs of American Indian and Alaska Na-
two sets of data provide information on 95 percent
tives with disabilities are determined by the num-
of the Native school-aged children. The Bureau of
ber of individuals with disabilities and the type of
Indian Affairs schools have 10 percent of Indian
disability. These two bases of information will
student enrollment and public schools which serve
85 percent of the students.
determine the resources that are needed. The num-
There were limitations in the two sources of
ber of Indian people needing services is determined
data, BIA data included the number of chi,dren
by the definitions operationalized through legisla-
tion for pre-school aged children, school-aged
served in 10 categories, whereas OCR colLocced
data on children receiving Special Education sei -
children, and adults. Table 1 provides information
vices within public schools in rive categories.
on the number and/or percentage of disabilities
followed by the types of disabilities which affect
Projections for the total number of Native children
with disabilities was 44,752. The data revealed
Native people at high rates.
that half (50.05%) of the Indian children were
Pre-school children
classified as Learning Disabled. The second and
Head Start programs have been the primary
third highest placements in special education were
agency servingNative children with disabili ies. In
Speech Impaired (25.17%) and Educable Montally
Retarded (11.26%) respectively. Based on 5
the year 1984-85, 11.52 percent (1,907 of 16,548) of
the Head Start enrollment were children with
categories of disabilities (educable mentally
retarded, trainable mentally retarded, speech im-
handicaps in 103 Indian Head Start programs. The
percentage of children with handicaps served by
paired, seriously emotionally disturbed, and learn-
ing disabled), the percentage of American Indien
Head Start increased from 8.7 percent for 1979-80
to 11.52 percent for the 1984-85 school year. For
and Alaska Native school-aged children with dis
preschool-aged children, information has become
abilities was the highest at 9.88 percent, with the
available through a report mandated by the 1986
exception of Blacks at 10.31 percent. The percent-
amendments to the Education for Handicapped
age of white children with handicaps was 8.51
percent.
Act, Public Law 100-297 (GAO, 1990) to determine
the number of 3 and 4 year old children needing
Data from the BIA show that 16.89 percent of
the student enrollment are placed in Special
services and the type of services. It was estimated
Education, whereas 11.20 percent of the US stu-
that there are 8,500 to 12,800 preschool children of
ages 3 and 4 years with disabilities. Of these es-
dent population are placed in Special Education.
Half (8.72%) of the Indian students enrolled in
timates, 3,000 children were on 63 reservations
Special Education are categorized as learning dis-
with Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIM schools. Fur-
abled. The second highest category for Special
ther, of the 3,000 children, 838 were receiving
special education services in the 1988-89 school
Education placements in BIA schools were speech
4 5
1
o PPVI
PROM
I
P
Disabilities and Special Education
TABLE 1
Comparison of Percentages by Handicapping Condition from Office of Civil Rights,
Bureau of Indian Affairs and U.S. Population Data
Categou
B1A %
OCR %
U.S. %
Mentally Retarded
1.04
1.66
1.84
Specific Learning Disabled
8.72
5.28
4.73
Seriously Emotionally Disturbed
0.65
0.61
0.96
Multi-Handicapped
0.38
0.18
Hearing Impaired
0.05
0.18
Visually Impaired
0.02
0.08
Orthopedically Impaired
0.06
0.15
Other Health Impaired
0.14
0.18
Speech Impaired
5.74
2.33
2.90
Deaf-Blind
0.005
Residential handicapped
0.09
Total Special Education
16.89
9.88
11.20
Note: From "A Study of Special Problems and Needs of American Indians with Handicaps both On and
Off Reservation," (p. 25) J.C. O'Connell (Ed.), 1987, Northern Arizona University.
Indians students with disabilities (mentally
impaired (5.74%) and mentally retarded (1.04%),It
nrist be noted, however, that the categ my of
retarded, speech impaired, seriously emotionally
speech impaired is a duplicated count for children
disturbed, and learning disabled) in programs in-
in BIA schools. All children receiving speech ser-
creased 41.8 percent. During this period, 80 per-
cent of the American Indian children in special
vices are counted even when if they are counted in
another category. For example, a student might be
education were in the categories of learning dis-
counted as both mentally retarded and speech im-
abled and speech impaired.
paired.
Adults with Disabilities
There appears to be some discrepancy in the
This report focuses on education of Indian
percentages for students in the categories such as
children, however data from the vocational
mentally retarded and hearing impaired. The per-
rehabilitation system which serves adults with
centage in the category of mentally retarded within
disabilities is important to consider as an index of
BIA was 1.04 percent as compared with the U.S.
anticipated needs. In the Survey of American In-
rate of 1.84 percent. In view of conditions such as
dians and Alaska Natives (SAIAN) for 1987
fetal ;;lenhol syndrome and meningitis which are
(Altman, 1990) which included issues on health
frequently associated with mental retardation, it
status and health care, it was estimated that
is likely that the percentage of mental retardation
/ as reported by BIA is an underrepresentation. It is
172,512 individuals 18 years of age and nleer had
possible that Child Find activities are missing
some type of limitation. "This number re,
esents
some children with special needs. Similarly, the
33 percent of the total estimated populath,
18 and
number and percentage of Native children with
over who are served by the Indian Health Service
and live on or near a reservation" (Altman, 1990,
hearing impairments is considered to be an under-
pp 10-11). In particular, Native men and women
estimate. Conditions such as otitis media continue
to be prevalent among Native people. In the state
ages 18-44 are more likely to report limitation of a
of South Dakota, hearing impairments are repor-
usual activity due to a health condition than would
be reported by the general population. There is an
tedly 20-30 percent higher for Native children than
alarming relation between the accidents and resul-
for non Native children.
tant disability. Of those who survive accidents, 25
In a comparison of data from the US Depart-
percent report total work limitation, while 37.5
ment of Education, Office of Civil Rights, "the
number of American Indian students attending
percent reported some activity limitation.
While there are conditions which result in disa-
public elementary and secondary schools [between
bling conditions from conception, during pregnan-
1978 and 1986] ..." increased eight percent. In this
cy, or in early childhood, there are conditions which
same period, however, the percentage of American
6
5
Indians Nations At Risk: Solutions for the 1990s
can be prevented like auto accidents which have
tive children with disabilities to Vocational
devastating and long-term disabling effects. Issues
Rehabilitation.
and concerns in adulthood are similar to those of
In the years of 1987 and 1988, tribal vocational
nondisabled individuals. Education or training
rehabilitation projects served 1,035 clients with
leading to employment is a typical oNective of
disabling conditions such as follows: (a) alcoholism
(272), (b) "othee disabilities (181), (c) or-
young adults with independence being a high con-
sideration. Many Native disabled adults perceive
'.hopedic/musculoskeletal (113), (d) mentally
the possibility of independent living much less
retarded (96), (e) learning disabled (84), (f) spinal
employment to be merely a dream. The state-
cord injury (43), (g) mental illness/psychological
federal system ofvccational rehabilitation services
(42), and (0 arthritis (41) (Lonetree, 1989, p. 21).
which is available to any disabled persons affords
The category oP'other" disabilities included those
individuals the opportunity to achieve goals of
such as heart conditions, renal conditions, cancer,
independent living, training and/or employment.
respiratory related conditions, speech disorders,
Vocational rehabilitation (VR) is a federal-state
diabetes, and back injuries. Services provided to
system of services for adults with disabilities.
the Native people with disabilities were of four
Vocational rehabilitation services are based on
categories: (a) personal counseling, (b) vocational
eligibility criteria rather than on an entitlement
counseling, (c) vocational evaluations, and (d)
basis. Although American Indian and Alaska Na-
psychological testing. Other services included: (a)
tives have a rate of disability 1 1/2 times greater
resource management, (b) training, (c) transporta-
than the general population, they are under-
tion, (d) on-the-job training, (e) education, and (0
represented in the service delivery system of voca-
physical capacity evaluation (Lonetree, 1989, p.
tional rehabilitation. In 1978, amendments to the
24).
Rehabilitation Act included a section authorizing
Effects of Socio-Economic Conditions
funding for Indian Vocational Rehabilitation
Programs in an amount "... not more than an
Native people experience rates of disability at
amount equal to 1 percent of the amount ap-
considerably higher rates than for the general US
propriated for
this subsection."
...
population. In addition to high rates of disabilities,
Fourteen tribes have been awarded funds to
Native people are affected adversely by socio-
operate tribal vocational rehabilitation programs.
economic indices in areas of education, health,
In 1987, a total of 574 individuals were referred for
economy, unemployment, and high rates of pover-
services; 341 American Indian and Alaska Native
ty. In the 1980 US Census (1983), 27.5 percent of
clients received services from nine of the tribal
American Indians had incomes below the poverty
vocational rehabilitation projects. In 1988, the
level compared with 12.4 percent of the general
number of clients referred was 846; those who
population. Examples of the percentage of families
received services increased to 643 served by 16
in poverty for specific tribes are: Navajo
42.7
projects.
percent; Sioux
36.5 percent; Pueblo tribes
Sources of referrals to the tribal vocational
28.5 percent; Choctaw
17.7 percent; Apache
29.6 percent; and Creek
rehabilitation projects came from a variety of agen-
16.7 percent. Although
conditions of poverty are not causal factors of
des, however of the 574, the largest source was
through self-referral (144, 25%) for the year 1987.
learning difficulties or developmental delays, they
limit resources brought about by poverty and
Other referral sources were: Indian Health Service
reduce or eliminate access to services which can
(93, 16%); Social Security Administration (54, 9%);
and public school (31, 0.5%). In 1988, other agen-
improve the quality oflife (News Digest, 1987). For
cies were involved in making the 846 referrals
example, poverty conditions can influence and
including: Social Welfare (190, 22%); self-referral
limit access to health care and educational oppor-
tu aides and impact on nutrition. A low socio-
(165, 19.5%); tribal organization (65, 7.6%); and
public schools (31, 0.3%). Issues of transition for
economic level will likely the affect the quality of
life. Educators must recognize that children from
disabled individuals from school to work have been
of concern. For example, when disabled students
family situations of limited income do not equate
exit from high school including dropouts, are they
with nor cause limited intelligence. The parallel is
referred to Vocational Rehabilitation?
drawn that a child from a disadvantaged family
If not, in
(limited resources) will be a disadvantaged
what activities are they involved, if any? The low
percentages of referrals of less than a half percent
learner. Two levels of assumptions typify reactions
to children from disadvantaged families:
(0.5% and 0.3%) indicates that networks need to be
established which would facilitate referral of Na-
First, stereotypic ideas about the capabilities
of a child who is poor or who belongs to an
ethnic minority will detract from an accurate
7
6
Disabilities and Special Education
assessment of the child's real educational
primarily the result of visual, hearing or
problems and potential. Second, by focusing
motor handicaps of muttal retardation, or
on family deficiencies, ... (one) misscs the
emotional disturbance, or of environmental,
strengths of the cultuies from which many
cultural, or economic disadvantage. (US Of-
disadvantaged students come.
focusing
fice of Education, 1977, p. 65083)
only on
family dysfunction may obscure
...
This definition states specifically that learning
the larger picture of n community's culture
disability shall not be used to define children with
and its strengths. (Knapp & Turnbull, 1990,
learning difficulties which might be attributed te
P. 5)
culture or economic disadvantage. In addition, an
Such perceptions by teachers and evaluators
individual who spoke or wrote in a lenguage other
may steer their decisions toward special education
than English could not be conr4dered as having a
referral and placement more readily than a well-
learning disability in the absence of other charac-
dressed child from a middle class family.
teristics which define learning disability.
Types of Disabilities
Fetal Akohol Syndrome (FAS)
Tyres of disabilities provide indicators of the
In the early 1970s, Jones and Smith (1973)
range of resources needed for persons with dis-
brought attention to the relationship between al-
abilities. Conditions which are prevalent among
cohol abuse during pregnancy and the resultant
Native children include learning disabilities, fetal
birth defects. The syndrome is characterized by
alcohol syndrome, meningitis, hearing impair-
pre- and post-natal growth deficiencies, dysmor-
ments, communication disorders and others. The
phic facial features, and central nervous system
prevalence of disabling conditions observed at the
dysfunction (Clarren & Smith, 1978). Among
pre-school age provide us with information on
American Indians and Alaska Natives, the in-
planning and development of services for school-
cidence of fetal alcohol syndrome ranges from 1 in
age populations. Similarly, disabling conditions
100 births to 1 in 750 births (May, Hymbaugh,
observed in the school-age population indicate the
Aase, & Samet, 1984).
services for which we can plan in the adolescent
Individuals with fetal alcohol syndrome may
and adult age groups. Brief descriptions are
require a range of services based on the severity of
provided of some conditions which affect Native
the syndrome. Services might include medical ser-
children at high rates
learning disabilities, fetal
vices, educational services, and family and com-
alcohol syndrome, meningitis, hearing impair-
munity resources (Giunta & Streissguth, 1988).
ments, and communication disorders.
Medical care and services stem from the array of
conditions like malformations ofthe ear, eye, heart
Learning Disabilities
defects, cleft lip and palate, and skeletal
The category in which the largest number of
anomalies. Central nervous system dysfunctions
Native children are identified is learning dis-
might be observed through a weak suck, feeding
abilities. Learning disabilities are not easily
and sleeping difficulties, and a failure to thrive.
defined perhaps because of the diversity of condi-
The FAS child will likely continue to be 'small for
tions which might constitute a learning disability.
his age.'
This category defines broadly, persons "who dis-
Infants and young children with FAS can
play a significant discrepancy between expecta-
benefit from early intervention to promote mental
tions for academic performance and actual
and motoric development. The infant stimulation
performance." (Coplin & Morgan, 1988, p. 614).
or preschool services may not ameliorate sig-
Regulations for Public Law 94-142 were released
nificantly the intellectual or physical deficits, how-
in 1977 pertaining to definitions for learning dis-
ever it can offset any further deterioration. It is
ability which included specific criteria:
possible that FAS children would qualify for Spe-
'Specific learning disabilltr means a disor-
cial Education services thereby receiving the
der in one or more of the basic psychological
educational support that is essential for them.
processes involved in understanding or in
Vocational training in high school should be an
using language. spoken or written, which
option and opportunity, the label ofFAS/FAE how-
may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to
ever does not automatically result in special educa-
listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to
tion placement as the post-secondary training
do mathematical calculations. The term in-
programs may be too rigorous and difficult for FAS
cludes such conditions as perceptual hand-
minimal brain
brain
icaps,
injury,
students. In addition, it would be most beneficial
dysfunction. dyslexia. and developmental
for FAS individuals to acquire life skills such as
aphasia. The term does not include children
"money management, safety skills, interpersonal
who have learning problems which are
(Giunta & Streissguth, 1988, p. 456).
Indians Nations At Risk: Solutions for the 1990s
Observations of FAS individuals indicate that
example, in South Doatota, otitis media is reported
"they are at higher than average risk for physical
to occur in Native children at a rate 20-30 percent
abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect. They are fre-
higher than for non-Native children (Pipes, 1990).
quently raised in high-risk environments by
However, it is suspected that the detection ofhear-
mothers who struggle for sobriety, have few
ing loss goes undetected for Native children there-
resources, and little support" (Giunta &
by missing the opportunity for appropriate
Streissguth, 1988, p. 456). A parent who adopted
educational and therapeutic interventions. Impact
FAS children describes them similarly "Our older
of hearing loss may affect language development
children,....cannot function independently, cannot
and possibly educational lag. Even a mild hearing
hold jobs, tell the truth, manage money, plan a
loss can result in a student being a grade level
future" (Dorris, 1990, p. 3).
behind (Quigley, 1978).
Dorris (1990) estimated that the number of
Meningitis
babies born annually who will experience learning
problems due to prenatal exposure to alcohol and
Estimates are that the bacteria of hemophilus
crack cocaine is 300,000. Concern exists as to
influenza type b (RIB) which causes meningitis
whether the number of FAS or drug babies will
affects Navajo and Apache children at a rate 10 to
continue to increase. Given these estimates, the
50 times greater than in the general population of
population of FAB and FAE children will be three
children (Habbersett, 1989). Of the approximate
million in ten years
12,000 cases of klIB, most of the cases affect
"if" the rate were constant.
While the consequences of FAS are devastating
American Indian and Eskimo children. Although
and irreversible, fetal alcohol syndrome is prevent-
half of the children with meningitis recover, 5-10
percent will die and 30 percent will experience
able.
adverse neurological effects. Most of the children
Communication Disorckrs
affected by meningitis are under the age of 12
National estimates of children under the age of
months. Meningitis can result in paralysis, mental
18 years with communication disorders is 10 per-
retardation, or speech and hearing impairments.
cent (Boone, 1987). Harris (1986) suggested that
the rates of communication disorders among
Assessment
American Indian children may be 5 to 15 percent
American Indian and Alaska Native students
greater than in the general population. A conser-
with special needs are placed in instructional
vative estimate is that 70,000 Nadve children may
programs influenced by the assessment process a',
be in need of services for communication disorders
required by law and regulations. The assessmen
(Pipes, 1990). Conditions which affect communica-
process is a critical component in making decisions
tion include cleft palate and cleft lip, which occur
for the students' programs. Key issues in assess-
at a rate of 1 in 400 among American Indians as
ment that need to be addressed in evaluations of
compared with a rate of 1 in 700 for the general US
American Indian and Alaska Native atudents with
population (Pipes, 1990).
special educational needs are presented in this
In reference to Native children who speak their
section.
native language or who lack proficiency in English,
it is critical that clinicians determine if indeed a
Assessment Requirements
speech or communication disorder exists. Produc-
According to Public Law 94-142
tion of language by bilingual speakers should not
Children are referred for evaluation for a range
be misdiagnosed as disorders of articulation, voice,
of educational concerns. The assessment process is
or fluency. Determination of the existence of a
meant to determine the nature of the concern and
speech or language disorder would necessitate an
how the need can be met, possibly through special
assessment of communicative competence. For ex-
education or other services. While there may be
ample, a speech or language difference might be
variations to the implementation of assessment,
observed only in one language (English or native
Public Law 94-142 requires the following:
language) and not the other. Factors to be con-
-State and local education agencies shall
sidered include: (a) language of proficiency, (b)
ensure, at a minimum that:
language sample in school and home, and (c) tribal
Testing and evaluation materials and proce-
a.
or regional language differences (Bernal, 1977;
dures used for the purposes of evaluation
Payan, 1989).
and placement of handicapped children
must be selected and administered so as not
Hearing Impairments
to be racially or culturally discriminatory.
Otitis media continues to affect American In-
dians at high rates leading to hearing loss. For
8
Disabilities and Special Education
Testing and evaluation materials and proce-
b.
In the general investigation of testing practices
dures must be provided and administered in
throughout the United States, the following
the language or other mode of communica-
criticisms are equally pertinent to the special
tion in which the student is most proficient,
education assessment of Native students. Laosa
unless it is clearly not feasible to do so.
(1977) stressed the need to evaluate testing prac-
Test must be administered to a student with
c.
tices in light of the major criticisms uncovered
a motor, speech, hearing, visual, or other
about testing
communication disability, or to a bilingual
1. Standardized tests are biased and unfair
child, so as to reflect accurately the child's
ability in the area tested rather than the
to persons from cultural and socioeconomic
child's impaired communication skill or
minorities since most tests reflect largely
limited English language skill unless those
white, middle class values and attitudes,
are the factors the test purports to measure.
and they do not reflect the experience and
the linguistic, cognitive, and other cultural
d. Tests and other materials used for placement
must be properly and professionally
styles and values of' minority group per-
evaluated for the specific purpose for which
sons.
they are used, and administered by qualified
2. Standardized measurement procedures
personnel in conformance with instructions
have fostered undemocratic attitudes by
provided by the producers of the tests and
their use in forming homogeneous class-
materials.
room groups which severely limit educa-
Tests and other evaluation procedures must
e.
tional, vocational, economic, and other
include assessment of specific areas of
societal opportunities.
educational need.
3. Sometimes assessments are conducted in-
No single test, type of test, or procedme may
f.
competently by persons who do not under-
be used as the sole criteria for determining
stand the culture and language ofminority
an appropriate educational program for a
group students and who thus are unable to
child.
elicit a level of performance which ac-
Evaluation procedures must include an as-
g.
curately reflects the child's underlying
sessment that is sufficiently comprehensive
to diagnose and appraise the child's
competence.
suspected impairment; and a multidiscipli-
4. Testing practices foster expectations that
nary approach for children suspected of
may be damaging by contributing to the
having severe, multiple, or complex disor-
self-fulfillment prophecy which ensures
ders, including a specific learning disability.
low-achievement for persons who score low
All relevant information with regard to the
h.
on tests.
functional abilities of the child must be used
Standardized measurements rigidly shape
in making a placement determination.
5.
school curricula and restrict educational
(Federal Register, Aug 4, 1984, 300.158)R
Special education assessment is critical to all
change.
other decisions. In the absence of fair or non-dis-
6. Norm-referenced measures are not useful
criminatory assessment, appropriate educational
for instructional purposes.
decisions for Native students with special needs
7. The limited scope of many standardized
may be seriously diminished. Further, to ensure
tests appraises only a part of the changes
that tests used in special education assessment of
in students that schools should be inter-
Native students is adequate and appropriate, tests
ested in producing.
must: (a) be administered in the child's native
8. Standardized testing practices foster a
language, (b) be validated for the purpose for which
view of human beings as having only in-
they are used, (c) be administered by trained per-
nate and fixed abilities and charac-
sonnel, and (d) be tailored to the special education-
teristics.
al needs of the students.
Certain use of tests represents an invasion
9.
Criticisms of Assessment Practices
of privacy. (Laosa, 1977; pp. 10-11)
The recent INAR hearings had few comments
In a study that examined differences in assess-
on testing practices among American Indian and
ment practices and procedures for Native students,
Alaska Native special education students. There
McShane (1979) a Native psyriologist, observed
were some conceras expressed regarding the
that movement away from the concerns offairness
validity of tests. However, availabie testimony did
and discrimination in test instruments to the ac-
not elaborate on nor support that contention.
tual assessment process had taken place. McShane
.1 0
9