Equality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction

354 Pages·2017·8.237 MB·English

by  Beth Gaze

Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-43225-3 — Equality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction
Beth Gaze , Belinda Smith
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EQUALITY AND
DISCRIMINATION
LAW IN AUSTRALIA:
AN INTRODUCTION
E quality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction explores four
decades of anti-discrimination laws in Australia. Beth Gaze and Belinda Smith
argue that effective laws protecting against and deterring discrimination are vital
for a fair future, and emphasise the theoretical and social contexts that underpin
this area of the law.
Their ground-breaking approach begins by analysing equality as a goal of
the law, and acknowledges that to prevent discrimination, modern laws must
challenge the beliefs, practices, systems and structures that enable it. The text is
divided into three sections: the fi rst addresses the social and conceptual context,
history and framework of anti-discrimination laws; the second analyses the main
elements of the law and the processes of enforcement; and the third explores
broader avenues for pursuing equality beyond simply prohibiting discrimination.
This book provides readers with a clear understanding of the development of
Australia’s anti-discrimination laws, and builds a foundation for critical assess-
ment of their strengths and limitations in addressing discrimination and promoting
equality.
Written in a clear and concise style, E quality and Discrimination Law in
Australia: An Introduction is a vital resource for students, practitioners, and any-
one who wants to understand this important fi eld of law.
B eth Gaze is Professor of Law at the University of Melbourne.
B elinda Smith is an Associate Professor at the University of Sydney Law School.
© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-43225-3 — Equality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction
Beth Gaze , Belinda Smith
Frontmatter
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© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-43225-3 — Equality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction
Beth Gaze , Belinda Smith
Frontmatter
More Information
EQUALITY AND
DISCRIMINATION
LAW IN AUSTRALIA:
AN INTRODUCTION
Beth Gaze and Belinda Smith
© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
Cambridge University Press
978-1-107-43225-3 — Equality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction
Beth Gaze , Belinda Smith
Frontmatter
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978-1-107-43225-3 — Equality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction
Beth Gaze , Belinda Smith
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgements x
Abbreviations xi
Table of cases xiii
Table of statutes xix
I ntroduction 1
P ART 1 INTRODUCTION 7
1 Equality, discrimination and law 9
1.1 I ntroduction: Equality as a fundamental value 10
1.2 Structure of this chapter 13
1.3 Concepts of equality and discrimination, and the law 14
1.3.1 E quality 16
1.3.2 D iscrimination 22
1.4 Discrimination and law 26
2 Historical background to anti-discrimination law 29
2.1 I ntroduction 3 0
2.2 The United Nations and non-discrimination 30
2.3 The second strand – the American civil rights movement 33
2.4 A ustralian social context 34
2.5 D evelopment of legislation in Australia 3 6
2.6 A ustralian constitutional context 38
2.6.1 C ommonwealth power to adopt anti-discrimination laws 39
2.6.2 S ection 109: Confl icts between Commonwealth and state laws 4 0
2.6.3 O ther constitutional aspects: The limits of federal powers 4 3
2.7 Development and reform of the law over time 4 5
2.8 C onclusion 4 6
3 Basic framework of legislation 47
3.1 I ntroduction 4 8
3.2 Choices in designing legislation against discrimination 4 8
3.3 A nti-discrimination laws 51
3.3.1 P rohibiting discrimination 5 1
3.3.2 E nforcement and remedies 56
3.4 F air Work Act 2009 (Cth) 59
3.5 P ositive duties 61
3.6 H uman rights legislation 61
3.7 C onclusion 6 3
v
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978-1-107-43225-3 — Equality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction
Beth Gaze , Belinda Smith
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P ART 2 ANTI-DISCRIMINATION LEGISLATION 65
4 The attributes 67
4.1 I ntroduction 6 8
4.2 Structure and variation across legislation 68
4.3 Formulating and conceptualising attributes 7 0
4.3.1 W hy these attributes?: Pragmatism and principle 71
4.3.2 S ymmetrical or asymmetrical: Liberal or substantive equality 76
4.3.3 T erminology: Grounds, attributes, characteristics 7 8
4.3.4 W idth of protection: The attribute as status, activity, manifestation 79
4.3.5 M ultiple and intersectional discrimination 84
4.4 The attributes 85
4.4.1 R ace and related attributes 86
4.4.2 S ex and related attributes 90
4.4.3 D isability 98
4.4.4 O ther attributes 100
4.5 C onclusion: The way forward 102
5 Prohibited conduct 104
5.1 I ntroduction 1 05
5.2 Discrimination 105
5.2.1 D irect discrimination 108
5.2.2 I ndirect discrimination 118
5.3 R easonable adjustments 125
5.4 D isability standards and action plans 129
5.5 H arassment 131
5.6 V ilifi cation 134
5.7 Associated prohibitions 1 37
5.7.1 A ccessory liability 137
5.7.2 A dvertising 138
5.7.3 S eeking information 139
5.7.4 V ictimisation 140
5.8 C onclusion 141
6 Areas 142
6.1 I ntroduction 1 43
6.2 General scope of prohibition on discrimination 143
6.3 S pecifi c areas in which discrimination is prohibited 145
6.3.1 W ork 145
6.3.2 E ducation 1 51
6.3.3 G oods and services 152
6.3.4 O ther areas 154
vi Contents
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978-1-107-43225-3 — Equality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction
Beth Gaze , Belinda Smith
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6.4 H arassment prohibitions and exceptions 1 54
6.5 C ommon exceptions and defences 155
6.5.1 R easonableness 156
6.5.2 S pecial measures 156
6.5.3 S tatutory authority 157
6.5.4 R eligious beliefs 157
6.5.5 U njustifi able hardship 160
6.5.6 W ork exceptions 161
6.5.7 O ther categories of exceptions 163
6.5.8 T emporary exemptions 164
6.6 T ypes of liability 1 65
6.6.1 P ersonal liability 165
6.6.2 V icarious or attributed liability 166
6.6.3 A ll reasonable steps defence 167
6.7 D istinctive features of the R acial Discrimination Act 169
6.8 C onclusion 172
7 Making rights effective: Institutions, procedures and remedies 1 73
7.1 Introduction 1 74
7.2 Processes and institutions of enforcement 175
7.2.1 M aking a complaint 178
7.2.2 T ime limits 179
7.2.3 C hoosing which avenue to pursue 180
7.3 Investigation and conciliation of complaints 183
7.3.1 C onfi dentiality of conciliation 1 86
7.3.2 A fter conciliation 1 87
7.4 Adjudication 188
7.4.1 A pplying to a court or tribunal 188
7.4.2 I nterim orders and interlocutory proceedings 1 90
7.4.3 M ediation 190
7.4.4 P rocedure and evidence at adjudication 191
7.4.5 P roof 191
7.4.6 A ccess to legal representation and the role of agencies 1 93
7.4.7 R emedies 194
7.4.8 C osts and the risks of litigation 196
7.5 Evaluating enforcement 1 99
7.6 Conclusion 200
P ART 3 ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES AND OPTIONS 2 01
8 Positive action 203
8.1 I ntroduction: What is positive action? 204
8.2 When is positive action allowed? 2 07
Contents vii
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978-1-107-43225-3 — Equality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction
Beth Gaze , Belinda Smith
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8.2.1 T ests for special measures 209
8.2.2 I llustration using SDA 2 12
8.2.3 D istinctive approach of the RDA 214
8.3 W hen is positive action required? 218
8.3.1 W orkplace Gender Equality Act (WGE Act) 219
8.3.2 P ublic service duties 2 23
8.4 C onclusion 224
9 Employment discrimination and the F air Work Act 226
9.1 I ntroduction 2 27
9.2 Background: F air Work Act and general protections 227
9.3 S ection 351: ‘Discrimination’ 2 30
9.3.1 W hich employees are covered? 231
9.3.2 A ttributes 231
9.3.3 W hat is prohibited by s 351? 2 32
9.3.4 E xceptions to s 351(1) 241
9.3.5 E xercising a workplace right 243
9.4 Enforcement 2 44
9.4.1 W ho can take enforcement action? 244
9.4.2 D ispute resolution processes 245
9.4.3 S anctions 246
9.5 I nteraction with awards/agreements 246
9.6 C onclusion 247
10 Government action to advance equality: Human rights and
positive measures 249
10.1 Introduction 2 50
10.2 Protecting equality through bills of rights 250
10.3 Constitutional context 251
10.3.1 C onstitutional bills of rights 252
10.3.2 C onstitutional or statutory bills of rights 254
10.3.3 C onstitutional rights protection in Australia 255
10.3.4 A ustralia’s lack of constitutional protection against discrimination 2 56
10.4 Statutory bills of rights and equality protection 257
10.4.1 T he rights protected and their limits 258
10.4.2 P arliament – making legislation 261
10.4.3 The courts – interpreting legislation 261
10.4.4 The Executive – obligations on public authorities 2 63
10.4.5 Bringing an action to protect Charter rights 264
10.4.6 The limits of statutory protection of human rights 266
10.5 Positive duties 266
10.6 Procurement – the executive power 2 68
10.7 Conclusion 270
viii Contents
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978-1-107-43225-3 — Equality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction
Beth Gaze , Belinda Smith
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11 Equality rights into the future 271
11.1 Introduction 2 72
11.2 What role can and should law play in promoting equality? 2 73
11.3 Alternative directions 278
11.3.1 Unifi ed defi nition of discrimination 281
11.3.2 Duty to make reasonable adjustments 284
11.3.3 Shifting burden of proof 2 85
11.3.4 Enabling compliance: Codes of practice or guidelines 287
11.3.5 Costs 289
11.3.6 E xpanding sanctions and public enforcement powers 289
11.4 Conclusion 294
Appendix 295
Index 328
Contents ix
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978-1-107-43225-3 — Equality and Discrimination Law in Australia: An Introduction
Beth Gaze , Belinda Smith
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Our underlying aim with this book is to widen understanding in Australia of this complex
area of law in its context and conceptual framework. The challenges of writing a succinct
discussion covering fi fteen major pieces of legislation around the country need no
explanation. In this book we have generally focused on the laws that have been the subject
of the major cases, largely the federal laws and those from NSW and Victoria, where the
majority of case law is decided. To complete references to all legislation, we have included
an appendix that provides links to comparable provisions in all the laws.
Writing the book extended over several years, and was greatly assisted by the efforts of
a number of people. We are very grateful to David Jackson for initiating the project. We
have been greatly assisted by the various staff who have overseen the project, including
publisher Lucy Russell and copy editor Jane O’Regan, whose eye for detail and consist-
ency has contributed signifi cantly to the quality of the fi nal text. We owe special thanks to
the anonymous reviewers of the draft chapters, whose generous and insightful comments
contributed substantially to the further development and improvement of the text. We
thank Stephanie Batsakis and Ashleigh Pinto for their research assistance in compiling the
comparative tables.
Finally, we were both inspired by our parents and supported by our families, who
allowed us the time to read, think, discuss and write. We are grateful to Denny, Miranda,
Jojo and Julia, and Mark, Callum and Tara.
x
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