Environmental Impacts of Coal Mining & Utilization. A Complete Revision of Environmental Implications of Expanded Coal Utilization

353 Pages·1987·5.552 MB·English

by  M.J. Chadwick, N.H. Highton and N. Lindman (Eds.)

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Environmental Impacts of
COAL MINING AND
UTILIZATION
(A complete revision of Environmental Implications of
Expanded Coal Utilization)
A study by The Beijer Institute
The United Nations Environment Programme
The USSR Academy of Sciences
The National Energy Administration, Sweden
Editorial Writers:
M. J. CHADWICK
Ν. Η. HIGHTON
and
Ν. LINDMAN
Published for the Beijer Institute,
UNEP. the USSR Academy of Sciences
and the National Energy Administration, Sweden
PERGAMON PRESS
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Copyright © 1987 The Beijer Institute
All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
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First edition 1987
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Environmental impacts of coal mining and utilization.
"A complete revision of: Environmental implications
of expanded coal utilization."
"Published for the Beijer Institute, UNEP, and the
USSR Academy of Sciences."
Includes bibliographies.
1. Coal—Environmental aspects. I. Chadwick, M. J.
(Michael J.) II. Lindman, Nils. III. Highton, Ν. H.
IV. Beijer Institute. V. United Nations Environment
Programme. VI. Akademiia Nauk SSSR. VII. Environmental
implications of expanded coal utilization.
TD195.C58E5927 1986 333.8221 86-9464
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Environmental impacts of coal mining and
utilization: a study by the Beijer
Institute, the United Nations Environmental
Programme, the USSR Academy of Sciences.
—Rev.
1. Coal—Environmental aspects
I. Chadwick, M. J. II. Lindman, Nils
III. Highton, Ν. H. IV. Beijerinstitutet
V. United Nations. Environmental Programme
VI. Akademiia nauk SSSR VII. Environmental
implications of expanded coal utilization
662.62 TD195.C58
ISBN 0-08-031427-9
Printed in Great Britain by A. Wheaton & Co. Ltd. Exeter
Foreword
In 1979, when the Beijer Institute, the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) and the USSR Academy of Sciences embarked upon a
joint study of the environmental implications of increasing coal use, the world
economy was preoccupied with the pervasive impacts of the rising price of oil.
At that time, many countries worldwide were re-examining their energy
supply options and a number of them came to believe that coal would become
the natural substitute for increasingly expensive oil. Much attention was being
focused on modern technologies for the preparation of gaseous and especially
of liquid fuels from coal in an attempt to emulate the versatility of oil and
overcome the last fundamental barrier to its substitution. All these concerns
were reflected in the book that emerged from this joint study—Environmental
Implications of Expanded Coal Utilization, published by Pergamon Press in
1982.
During that period, predictions and forecasts about the future price of oil
and, hence, its destiny in the global energy economy were everywhere
abundant. But the idea of drastically falling prices as oil suppliers competed
for a share in a contracting world market seemed hardly credible when it was
mooted at the time. The prevailing mood was much more one of concern as to
how the world coal industry could be mobilized to meet the production levels
that would most likely be required of it. Now, 7 years on, with oil selling for
less than half its 1980 price, forecasters have a much greater respect for
uncertainty and realize that arriving at any energy future involving oil will
almost certainly produce a very bumpy ride.
Questions about the long-term global availability of oil, political volatility
and war in the Middle East, the falling demand for oil as energy conservation
measures and economic recession began to reduce world consumption, have
all contributed to this overall uncertainty. But the important consequence for
coal is that, in the short term, they have led to a steady price decline in oil and
seriously reduced the urgency and motivation of pushing ahead with
wholesale substitution by coal. This does not mean that coal has no important
role to play in the future. It is simply that its true role is currently turning out
to be different from what was anticipated for it. Only the most robust
developments in coal expansion have survived. These have included the rapid
deployment of hitherto largely neglected coal resources in several developing
countries, especially in South America and Africa. Additionally, several
industrialized countries have pushed ahead rapidly with extensive tech-
nological advances in coal combustion methods. By contrast, coal gasification
and, in particular, liquefaction operations have been scaled down or
ν
vi Foreword
abandoned. In fact, only a very few really promising advanced projects have
survived in the new economic climate of cheaper oil.
All these considerations have led us to request the authors of Environmental
Implications of Expanded Coal Utilization to undertake the task of revising the
original text in a most fundamental and extensive manner. The whole energy
demand and supply scene needed a completely fresh appraisal. New aspects of
the resource requirements for coal mine development had to be dealt with. The
very interesting new technological advances in coal combustion also required
detailed treatment. In addition, the enormous level of activity in the field of
acid depositions and their effects on the environment demanded a new
assessment of its significance for our understanding of environmental
acidification regionally.
We have been joined in these endeavours by the National Energy
Administration of Sweden which for some years has been deeply involved in
studying the potential role of coal in Sweden.
The result of this fundamental revision is not a new edition of the old text
but rather a completely new volume. The actual work of reappraisal and
revision had its origins in an International Workshop held by us in Moscow in
January 1984, hosted by our Soviet colleagues. Many scientists participated in
the new joint study by contributing to the review procedure at the Workshop
and/or by detailed technical correspondence. We should like to thank all those
who have given their time and effort to this work.
Our especial thanks go to Professor M. J. Chadwick, Dr. Ν. H. Highton and
Dr. N. Lindman, who not only edited all the newly collected material but also
provided a substantial proportion of it themselves.
Finally, one thing is clear from the new joint study. Although it seems that
the precise role to be played by coal in the global energy economy will always
depend on the prevailing fluctuations in the price of oil, there is no doubt that
over the ensuing years, with new ways of exploiting it, coal will without any
doubt steadily increase in importance as a major world fuel.
For the Beijer Institute For the UN Environment
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences: Programme:
GORDON T. GOODMAN M. TOLBA
Executive Director, Beijer Institute Executive Director
For the USSR Academy For the National Energy
of Sciences: Administration of Sweden:
SVENELD EVTEEV H. RODE
Deputy Chairman Director
Earth Sciences Section
March 1986
Preface
The environmental dimension to energy use is now firmly accepted in energy
planning and development. When changes in the spectrum of energy use are
proposed, comparison of the environmental impacts is often a significant
element in the considerations involved. Public opinion is now more clearly
focused and influential in determining the outcome of changes in the balance
of fuel use in the economy of many countries, particularly in relation to the
environmental implications of such changes.
From 1979 to 1981, the second round of oil price increases led to
suggestions that coal would be selected as a major energy alternative. It was
widely predicted that, as well as an increase in coal combustion using existing
technologies and rapidly developing ones, coal would also feature as a source
of liquid and gaseous fuels. Environmental concern focused on the likely
impacts both of increased coal mining and transportation and on the outcome
of gasification and liquefaction technologies. One of the results of these
concerns was the organization of an International Workshop on the
Environmental implications and Strategies for Expanded Coal Utilization held
in Moscow in 1980. The discussions at the Workshop, the material sub-
sequently submitted and a number of new publications formed the basis of a
volume (Chadwick and Lindman, 1982) addressing the major environmental
concerns of increased coal utilization. However, subsequent downward trends
in oil prices gave rise to less optimism on the future of the international coal
market: export prices were depressed, demand did not develop as previously
foreseen and excessive production resulted in increased stocks around the
world. But surprisingly these factors did not result in quite the downturn in
coal utilization that might have been expected: oil-pricing uncertainties and
possible future supply difficulties due to the Iraqi-Iranian war, and political
volatility combined to ensure a steady substitution of coal for oil and large-
scale mining developments (in Colombia, for example) coming on stream to
meet this growing demand.
For the reasons outlined above it was decided to update the information on
the environmental implications of increased coal production and utilization
contained in the previous work (Chadwick and Lindman, 1982). The focus of
this new study was rather different from the original activity, however; more
emphasis was given to developments in coal combustion technology and there
was a consequent reduction in the treatment given to coal gasification and
liquefaction. In addition, it was evident that more consideration was being
given, worldwide, to the resource requirements and demands made by the
development of new coal mines. Further, the increase in the number of
vii
viii Preface
investigations of the effects of emissions resulting from coal combustion had
to be reflected in the account of acid deposition effects on man-made and
natural ecosystems. The result is a new volume rather than a second edition of
the original one.
Chapter 1 attempts a fresh assessment of the role of coal in the international
energy scene. This involves a consideration of coal reserves, the relationship
between energy use and economic growth, factors controlling energy demand
and supply, and how current coal trade patterns might develop.
Chapters 2 and 3 address the impacts associated with coal mining
developments: land disturbance and reinstatement as well as the resource
demands involved. In particular, water needs are considered, as there is some
reason to believe that this may limit production in some regions of the world.
Chapter 4 deals with the environmental impacts of coal transportation.
Chapter 5 considers the developments taking place in coal combustion
technology, particularly fluidized bed combustion, coal liquid mixture
combustion and the implementation of combined cycles. The effect of these
developments on effluent production and emission control is considered.
Attention is paid to coal conversion processes in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7 outlines the concepts involved in assessing environmental and
health impacts of coal utilization and conversion and this forms an
introduction to the treatment of the environmental significance of exposure to
trace elements emitted from coal utilization processes (Chapter 8) and carbon
compounds (Chapter 9). Chapter 10 looks at the overall occupational and
environmental health problems from coal utilization and conversion in an
integrated way.
The pollutants traditionally associated with coal combustion are sulphur
dioxide and smoke. However, since particulate abatement has been so
successfully implemented, interest has focused, in a major way, on sulphur
dioxide and other acidic substance emissions. The result has been rapid
progress in the study of acid deposition effects. Chapter 11 reviews this in
relation to natural and man-managed terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems.
In spite of recent fuel market trends it seems safe to assume that moderate
economic growth will occur and that the price of oil will eventually continue
on its upward path. Coal demand may not attain some of the previous more
optimistic predictions, but will increase, at least in a modest way, for the 20
years beyond 1990. This increased utilization need not take place to the
detriment of the environment or at the expense of public and occupational
health. This volume sets the scene for the examination of the major factors
that need continued attention to make sure that this is so.
February 1986 M. J. CHADWICK Ν. H. HIGHTON NILS LINDMAN
CHADWICK, M. J. and LINDMAN, N. (1982). Environmental Implications of Expanded Coal
Utilization. Pergamon, Oxford.
Acknowledgments
Four organizations have sponsored this study. The Beijer Institute,
Stockholm, commissioned written reviews on the main areas where recent
advances have occurred in relation to coal utilization and environmental
impacts. The USSR Academy of Sciences co-ordinated contributions from
the Soviet Union. They also arranged (through the State Committee for
Science and Technology and the USSR Commission for UNEP) for a
Workshop to be held in Moscow in January 1984. The United Nations
Environment Programme, together with the Beijer Institute and the USSR
Commission for UNEP, gave financial support to enable this Workshop to
take place and the Energy Research Commission, Stockholm gave financial
assistance with attendance at the Workshop. The National Energy
Administration of Sweden generously provided funds to help with editorial
work and the writing of new sections of the study after the Workshop. This
support has enabled the material for this book to be assembled in three ways:
from the commissioned review papers; discussion, comments and written
material at the Workshop; reference material and new written material
prepared after the Workshop in the light of published material and advances
up to December 1985.
The review papers and other written material were prepared by J. Ν. B. Bell,
I. S. Blagov, M. J. Chadwick, Α. Grübler, L. D. Hamilton, Ν. H. Highton, H.
Jüntgen, J. Klein, V. A. Knizhnikov, A. A. Krichko, N. Lindman, V. M.
Maslennikov, A. Y. Reteyum, V. A. Ruban, M. Y. Shpirt, M. A. Styrikovich,
P. J. Svennignsson and R. A. Wadden. A discussion document based on this
material was commented upon, in detail, by twenty-two participants at the
Workshop from the USSR, the USA, Austria, the People's Republic of China,
Colombia, the Federal Republic of Germany, Sweden and the United
Kingdom. A paper published by IIASA and Resources and Energy (Elsevier
Science Publishers), prepared by J. Alcamo, was also discussed.
Many of the participants, and others, submitted written material at the
Workshop and subsequently by post. All these sources have formed the
material for this book, together with sections from the previous volume,
Environmental Implications of Expanded Coal Utilization by M. J. Chadwick
and Nils Lindman (Pergamon Press, 1982). The contribution of authors of
review papers for this earlier volume is acknowledged here. This new work is,
however, so substantially rewritten, and its emphasis changed, that it must be
regarded as a new work rather than a second edition.
We gratefully acknowledge the support of the Beijer Institute and its
Director (Professor G. T. Goodman) and Deputy Director (Dr. Lars
EICMU-A* ix
χ Acknowledgments
Kristoferson). We are also grateful for the help rendered by the USSR
Academy of Sciences (particularly Academician Α. V. Fokin, V. Volgin and
Mrs. N. Galubova), the USSR Commission for UNEP, UNEP, Nairobi (Dr.
Y. el Mahgary) and the National Energy Administration of Sweden
(H. Rode).
The cover illustration is reproduced by kind permission of the NCB
Yorkshire Regional Photographic Department (NCB copyright reserved). A
substantial part of Chapter 3 appeared as an article by J. Alcamo, Fire and
Water: Water Needs of Future Coal Development in the Soviet Union and the
United States, published by IIASA and Elsevier Science Publishers. We are
most grateful for permission to reproduce it. We also make grateful
acknowledgment for the editorial assistance received from Isobel Devan,
Julian Dison, Solveig Nilsson and Susan Sparrow.
February 1986 M. J. CHADWICK
Ν. Η. HIGHTON
NILS LINDMAN
Abbreviations and Acronyms
(see also Units, Conversions and Equivalents)
AF Ash free
Ap Ash content (proportion)
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand
BP Boiling point
CAPTEX Cross Appalachian Tracer Experiment
CARBOCOL Colombia State Mining Corporation
CC Combined cycle
CFB Circulating fluidized bed
CHO Chinese hamster ovary fibroblasts
CIF Cost insurance and freight
CLM Coal, liquid mixture
CMEA1 Council for Mutual Economic Aid
CMM Coal, methanol mixture
CMW Coal, methanol, water mixture
CoGas Coal gas process
COM Coal, oil mixture
COW Coal, oil, water mixture
CPE Centrally planned economies
CSSR Czechoslovakian Soviet Socialist Republic
C(t) Concentration at time /
CT Concentration χ time
CWM Coal, water mixture
daf Dry, ash free
$ Dollar (US)
DOE Department of Energy (US)
dwt Dead weight tonnage
Ε Exposure
EC Effective concentration at which 50 % die
EDS EXXON donor solvent process
EEC2 European Economic Community (Commission of the
European Communities)
EF Enrichment factor
EMEP Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation
of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollution in
Europe
xiv