Engineering Materials Science: Properties, Uses, Degradation, Remediation

604 Pages·2004·55.63 MB·English

by  Hugh McArthur, Duncan Spalding

ENGINEERING MATERIALS SCIENCE:
Properties, Uses Degradation and Remediation
"Talking of education, people have now a-days" (he said) "got a strange
opinion that every thing should be taught by lectures. Now, I cannot see that
lectures can do so much good as reading the books from which the lectures are
taken. I know nothing that can be best taught by lectures, except where
experiments are to be shown. You may teach chymestry by lectures -- You
might teach making of shoes by lectures!"
James Boswell: L~fe of Dr Samuel.Johnson. 1766
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Hugh McArthur BA(Cantab) MSc PhD
Dr Hugh McArthur, born in Africa, was educated at Cambridge University
where he read Natural Science Tripos, specialising in metallurgy and
corrosion. He spent 10 years in the corrosion laboratories in the Nuclear
Power industry before joining Leicester Polytechnic (now De Montfort) in
1963. He gained an MSc from Leicester University and a PhD from
Loughborough University in 1969 for his work on high strain fatigue. Dr
McArthur is a corrosion consultant to the motor industry and has authored two
books on motor vehicle corrosion. He was Principal Lecturer at De Montfort
University and has spent 30 years specialising in electron microscopy and
materials science teaching, research and consultancy to the construction
industry. This is Dr McArthurs's second book on materials science.
Duncan Spalding BSc (Hons) PhD
Dr Duncan Spalding was educated at Leicester Polytechnic (now De Montfort
University) where he read Building Surveying. He spent a number of years
working in the building industry as a development surveyor, before moving to
De Montfort University as a Research Fellow in 1993 where he gained a·PhD
in 1999 for his work on modelling sources of contaminant emission from
building materials. He has undertaken externally funded research, and has
published articles in this area: and is currently Senior Lecturer in Materials
Science at Leicester School of Architecture in De Montfort University.
ENGINEERING MATERIALS SCIENCE
Properties, Uses, Degradation and Remediation
Hugh McArthur
Former Principal Lecturer
De Montfort University, Leicester and
Corrosion Consultant to Automotive and Steel
Manufacturing Industries, and British Steel
Duncan Spalding
Senior Lecturer in Materials Science
Leicester School of Architecture
De Montfort University, Leicester
WP
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First published by Horwood Publishing Limited, 2004
Reprinted by Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011
© McArthur and Spalding 2004
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ISBN 978-1-898563-11-2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
XIX
Sources ofI nformation xx
Preface xxv
1 STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS
1.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 NOMENCLATURE AND COMPOSITION ........................ 2
1.2.1 Chemical Formulae ....................................... 3
1.2.2 Other Chemical Conventions ................................ 3
l.3ATOMICTHEORY ........................................... 4
1.3.1 Structure ofthe Atom ...................................... 5
1.3.2 Electron Configuration of Atoms ............................. 6
1.3.3 Isotopes ................................................ 8
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS ............................ 10
1.6 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS ................. 12
1.7 TRENDS ACROSS A PERIOD IN THE PERIODIC TABLE ......... 13
1.8 TRENDS WITHIN A GROUP IN THE PERIODIC TABLE .......... 16
1.8.1 Group 1 Elements (Li Na K Rb Cs) .......................... 16
1.8.2 Group 2 Elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) ................... 18
1.8.3 Group 3 Elements (B, Al, Ga, In, Th) ........................ 19
1.8.4 Group 4 Elements (C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb) ........................ 21
1.8.5 Group 5 Elements (N, P, As, Sb, Bi) ......................... 24
1.8.6 Group 6 Elements (0, S, Se, Te, Po) ......................... 25
1.8.7 Group 7 Elements (F, Cl, Br, I) ............................. 27
1.8.8 The Transition Metals .................................... 27
1.8.9 Metals and Non-metals ................................... 28
1.9 CHEMICAL BONDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.10 METALLIC BONDS ........................................ 29
vi Table of Contents
1.10.1 Electrical Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.10.2 Summary: Properties of the Metallic Bond ................... 31
1.11 COVALENT BONDS ....................................... 31
1.11.1 Covalent Bonds Formed with Non-metals
(Groups 6, 7 and Hydrogen) .............................. 31
1.11.2 Covalent Bonds Formed with Group 4 Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.11.3 Summary: Properties of the Covalent Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.12 IONIC BONDS ............................................ 35
1.12.1 Summary: The Properties of the Ionic Bond .................. 35
1.13 MIXED BONDING ......................................... 36
1.14 VAN DER WAALS FORCES (OR 'BONDS') .................... 38
1.14.1 Summary: Properties of the van der Waals 'Bond' ............. 39
1.15 STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS ................................... 40
1.15. l Modelling Crystalline Solids .............................. 40
1.15.2 Packing Arrangements of Solids ........................... 41
1.15.3 Space Lattice and the Unit Cell ............................ 42
1.16 METALLIC STRUCTURES .................................. 45
1.17 COVALENT STRUCTURES ................................. 46
1.18 IONIC STRUCTURES ....................................... 48
1.18.1 [8]:[8] Structures ....................................... 48
1.18.2 [6]:[6] Structures ....................................... 50
1.18.3 [4]:[4] Structures ....................................... 51
1.18.4 More Complex Ionic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.18. 5 Water of Crystallisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3
1.18.6 Ionic Substitution ....................................... 54
1.19 ACIDS AND ALKALIS (BASES) .............................. 57
1.19.1 Water ................................................ 59
1.19.2 Ionic Compounds Containing Off Groups ................... 60
1.19.3 pH .................................................. 62
1.19 .4 Effect of Temperature on pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.19.5 Properties of Acids and Alkalis ............................ 63
1.19.6 Conventions for Chemical Formulae for Acids and Alkalis ....... 63
1.19.7 Balancing Equations (Acid+ Base - Salt+ Water) ............. 65
1.19.8 Summary ............................................. 66
1.20 RADIOACTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.20.1 Types ofRadiation ...................................... 67
1.20.2 Artificial Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.20.3 Balancing Nuclear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.20.4 Rates of Radioactive Decay ............................... 68
1.20.5 Uses of Radioactivity .................................... 69
1.20.6 Geological Dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.20.7 Radon ................................................ 70
1.21 LAND FILL GASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.21.1 Properties of the Gases Evolved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Table of Contents vii
2 STATES OF MATTER AND PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................... 74
2.2 GASES .................................................... 74
2.2.1 Ideal Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.2.2 Fundamental Kinetic Theory Equation for a Gas ................ 74
2.2.3 Relationships for Gases Based on Fundamental Theory .......... 75
2.2.4 Intermolecular Distance in Gases ............................ 76
2.2.5 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure ............................ 76
2.2.6 Relative Humidity ....................................... 76
2.2.7 Vapour Pressure Stability of Compounds ..................... 77
2.3 LIQUIDS .................................................. 78
2.4 SOLIDS ................................................... 78
2.4.1 Amorphous State ........................................ 78
2.4.2 Crystalline State ......................................... 78
2.5 CHANGE OF PHASE AND LATENT HEAT ..................... 79
2.6 LIQUID TO SOLID CHANGE OF PHASE ....................... 81
2.6.1 Effect of Pressure ........................................ 82
2.6.2 Stability of Phases ....................................... 82
2.6.3 Crystallisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.6.4 Effect oflmpurities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.7 LIQUID TO GAS CHANGE OF PHASE ......................... 85
2.8 DEFORMATION ............................................ 86
2.8.1 Elastic Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.8.2 Thennally Induced Dimensional Changes ..................... 89
2.9 SOLUTIONS ............................................... 93
2.9.1 Homogeneous Solutions ................................... 93
2.9.2 Heterogeneous Solutions .................................. 97
2.10 THIXOTROPY AND DILATANCY ............................ 99
3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING
3.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................... 100 ..
3.2 TENSILE TESTING ........................................ 100
3.2.1 Load-Defonnation Relationships ........................... 102
3.2.2 Stress-Strain Relationships ................................ 103
3.2.3 Characterising Materials Using Stress-Strain Curves ............ 104
3 .3 COMPRESSION TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.4 SURFACE PROPERTIES .................................... 108
3.4.l Hardness .............................................. 108
3.5 TIME DEPENDENT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES .............. 110
3.5.1 Impact Testing ......................................... 110
3.5.2 Viscosity ............................................. 112
3.5.3 Viscoelastic Behaviour .................................. 113
3.5.4 Creep ................................................ 114
3.5.5 Fatigue ............................................... 116
3.6 MECHANISMS RESULTING IN CRACKING IN MATERIALS ..... 117
3.7 IN SERVICE INSPECTION AND TESTING ..................... 120
viii Table of Contents
3.7.1 Inspection Aids ........................................ 120
3.7.2 Surface Hardness ....................................... 120
3.7.3 Ultrasonic Pulses ............................ .' .......... 122
3.7.4 Electromagnetic Cover Measurement ....................... 123
3.7.5 Radiography ........................................... 124
3.7.6 Near-to-Surface Tests ................................... 125
3.7.7 Initial Surface Absorption Test (ISAT) ...................... 126
3.7.8 Resonant Frequency ..................................... 126
3.7.9 Subsurface Radar Surveys ................................ 126
3.7.10 Radiometry ........................................... 126
3.7.11 Neutron Moisture Measurement ........................... 127
3.7.12 Surface Permeability ................................... 127
3.8 REFERENCES ............................................. 128
4WATER
4.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................... 129
4.2 WATER SUPPLIES ......................................... 130
4.2.1 Water Board Sewage Treatment ........................... 131
4.3 HARD AND SOFT WATER .................................. 133
4.3.1 Temporary Hardness .................................... 133
4.3.2 Permanent Hardness ..................................... 135
4.3.3 Total Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hard Water ................ 135
4.4 WATER SOFTENING ....................................... 136
4.4.1 Method 1. Water Board Methods ........................... 136
4.4.2 Method 2. Base Exchange Process .......................... 136
4.4.3 Method 3. Addition of Soap ............................... 137
4.4.4 Method 4. Addition of Washing Soda Crystals ................ 138
4.4.5 Method 5. Garage Forecourt System ........................ 138
4.4.6 Method 6. Calgontm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.4.7 Other Water Softening Methods ........................... 138
4.5 REFERENCES ............................................. 138
5 MOISTURE EFFECTS IN BUILDINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................... 139
5.2 MOISTURE SOURCES ...................................... 139
5.2.1 Construction Moisture Sources ............................ 139
5.2.2 Interior Moisture Sources ................................. 140
5.2.3 Exterior Moisture Sources ................................ 140
5.3 MOISTURE TRANSPORT AND STORAGE ..................... 141
5.4 CAPILLARITY (LIQUID WATER) ............................ 142
5.4.l Capillary Radius ........................................ 143
5.4.2 Surface Tension ........................................ 143
5.4.3 Contact Angle ......................................... 146
5.4.4 Mathematical Relationship for Capillarity .................... 147
5.5 ABSORPTION (LIQUID WATER) ............................. 148
Table of Contents ix
5.6ADSORPTION(WATER VAPOUR) ........................... 149
5.7 CAPILLARY CONDENSATION .............................. 151
5.8 MOISTURE CONTROL IN NEW BUILDINGS .................. 152
5.8.1 Surface Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.8.2 Pitched Roofs .......................................... 155
5.9 PENETRATING DAMPNESS (LIQUID WATER) ................ 156
5. 9 .1 Condition of the External Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 6
5.9.2 Degree of Exposure to the Weather ......................... 157
5.9.3 Visual Diagnosis of Penetrating Dampness ................... 157
5.10 RISING DAMP (LIQUID WATER) ........................... 157
5.10.1 Visual Diagnosis of Rising Damp ......................... 157
5 .11 DAMP DETECTION EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.11.1 Moisture Meters ....................................... 158
5.11.2 Calcium Carbide Meter (Speedy™) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5 .11.3 Exclusion Methods for Rising Damp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.12 CONDENSATION (WATER VAPOUR) ....................... 162
5.12. l Heating Moist Air ..................................... 162
5.12.2 Cooling Moist Air ..................................... 162
5.12.3 Surface Condensation ................................... 163
5.12.4 Interstitial Condensation ................................ 164
5 .12.5 Limiting Condensation in Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.12.6 Summary ............................................ 167
5.13 REFERENCES ............................................ 167
6 MOISTURE EFFECTS IN MATERIALS
6.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.2 STRUCTURE OF POROUS MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.3 WEATHERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.4 MOISTURE INDUCED DIMENSIONAL CHANGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.5 BULKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.6 FROST DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.6.l Volume Expansion Water - Ice ............................ 176
6.6.2 Hydraulic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.6.3 Capillary Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.6.4 Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.6.5 Factors Influencing Freeze-thaw Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.6.6 Degradation Tests for Frost Resistance ...................... 180
6.7 WATER SOLUBLE SALTS .................................. 181
6. 7 .1 Efflorescence and Crypto-efflorescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.7.2 Types of Water Soluble Salts .............................. 181
6.7.3 Sources of Water Soluble Salts ............................ 182
6.7.4 Formation of Efflorescence ............................... 183
6.8 REFERENCES ............................................. 184
7 MASONRY MATERIALS
7.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................... 185