Engineering Materials 2 - An Introduction to Microstructures and Processing

578 Pages·2013·13.662 MB·578\578

by  Ashby, Michael F., Jones, David R.H.

Engineering Materials 2
An Introduction to
Microstructures and Processing
Fourth Edition
Michael F. Ashby
Royal Society Research Professor Emeritus
University of Cambridge and Former Visiting
Professor of Design at the Royal College of Art
London
David R. H. Jones
President, Christ’s College
Cambridge
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Preface to the Fourth Edition
In preparing this fourth edition of Engineering Materials 2, I have made sig-
nificant changes, whilst being careful not to alter the essential character of
the book. At the most obvious level, I have added many new photographs to
illustrate the basic coursework and the case studies—many taken during my
travels around the world investigating materials problems. These days, the
Internetis anessential tool ofknowledge and communication—to the extent
that textbooks should be used alongside web-based sources. I have given fre-
quent references in the text to web pages and video clips—ranging from the
accident investigation report on the space shuttle Columbia to the low-
expansion glass water gauges on a Ffestiniog Railway steam loco. And when
a geographical location is involved—like the Sydney Opera House, or the
Roman aqueduct in Segovia—I have given the coordinates (latitude and lon-
gitude), which can be plugged into the search window in Google Earth to
take you right there. Not only does this give you a feel for the truly global
reach of materials and engineering, it also leads you straight to the large
number of derivative sources and references, such as photographs and web
pages, which can help you follow up your own particularinterests.
The section on phase diagrams—which had been an appendix in previous
editions—is now moved to its logical place early in the book, as two new
chapters (Chapters 3 and 4). (The solutions to the examples in these chap-
ters are retained but are placed together at the end of each chapter.) There is
more detail on aspects of phase transformations, including interface kinetics,
nucleation and growth, and constitutional undercooling. New material has
been added on phases in stainless steels (Schaeffler diagram) and modern
improvements to stainless steels. The chapter on processing metals has been
expanded to two chapters (Chapters 15 and 16), with increased emphasis on
secondary processing, including the use of continuous cooling transforma-
tion diagramsin steel heat treatment.
xiii
xiv Preface to the Fourth Edition
The two chapterson mechanical properties ofceramics havebeen condensed
to one (Chapter 19), as a consequence of moving probabilistic fracture of
brittle materials to the 4th edition of Engineering Materials 1; however,
detail has been added on deriving the Weibull parameters from modulus of
rupture data. New sections have been added on calculating thermal stress,
and reinforcingcement and concrete.
A new section on composites has been added, so each of the four materials
classes(metals,ceramics, polymers,composites) now hasits own section.
Many new case studies have been added, and many existing case studies
have been replaced. In particular, I have added new chapters of case studies
in the sections on ceramics (Chapter 22), polymers (Chapter 27), and com-
posites(Chapter30).
I have added many worked examples to illustrate, develop, or consolidate a
topic without interrupting the flow of the text. Most are directly related to
real examples of materials processing, microstructures, properties, and appli-
cations, and cover a wide range of subjects, ranging from excessive penetra-
tion of brazing alloy into electronic device connection pins, through gluing
wings and fuselages together in aircraft, to why wood is such a special
material.
Thenumberofexampleshasbeendoubled,andmanycontaincasestudiesor
practical examples relevant to processing, microstructures, properties, and
applications. I have tried to choose case study topics which are informative
and connected to the real world. So the worked example on the Columbia
space shuttle disaster—caused by polymer foam detaching from the fuel
tankand hittingtheshuttle’sceramic-compositethermalprotectionsystem—
indicates how easy it is for a large organization to lose the “folk memory” of
pastmistakes(thelossoftheChallengershuttle,17yearsearlier).
Materials occupy a central place in engineering for without them, nothing
can be made, nothing can be done. The challenge is to know how the ways
in which materials are processed directly determines their microstructures,
which in turn determine their properties; and to know how these properties
can be tailored by processing so they best satisfy the demands of real struc-
tures, components, or devices. To the materials engineer who is always curi-
ous, aware, and vigilant,the world is afascinating place.
DavidJones
Cambridge, July2012
Contents
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION..........................................................xiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................xv
GENERAL INTRODUCTION..........................................................................xvii
Part A Metals
CHAPTER 1 Metals.................................................................................3
1.1 Introduction..........................................................................3
1.2 MetalsforaModelSteamEngine......................................3
1.3 MetalsforDrinksCans........................................................9
1.4 MetalsforHipJoints.........................................................10
1.5 DataforMetals..................................................................12
CHAPTER 2 Metal Structures..............................................................15
2.1 Introduction........................................................................15
2.2 CrystalandGlassStructures............................................15
2.3 StructuresofSolutionsandCompounds..........................16
2.4 Phases................................................................................19
2.5 GrainandPhaseBoundaries............................................19
2.6 ShapesofGrainsandPhases............................................22
2.7 Summary—ConstitutionandStructure............................25
WorkedExample........................................................................26
CHAPTER 3 Phase Diagrams 1............................................................33
3.1 Introduction........................................................................33
3.2 SourceBooks......................................................................33
3.3 Components,Phases,andStructures..............................34
WorkedExample........................................................................37
WorkedExample........................................................................39
3.4 One-andTwo-ComponentSystems.................................43
WorkedExample........................................................................52
3.5 SolutionstoExamples.......................................................56 v
vi Contents
CHAPTER 4 Phase Diagrams 2............................................................63
4.1 Eutectics,Eutectoids,andPeritectics..............................63
4.2 TestExamples...................................................................78
4.3 SolutionstoExamples.......................................................82
CHAPTER 5 Case Studies inPhase Diagrams....................................89
5.1 Introduction........................................................................89
5.2 ChoosingSoftSolders........................................................89
5.3 PureSiliconforMicrochips...............................................93
5.4 MakingBubble-FreeIce....................................................98
WorkedExample......................................................................101
CHAPTER 6 Driving Force for Structural Change.............................109
6.1 Introduction......................................................................109
6.2 DrivingForces..................................................................109
6.3 Reversibility.....................................................................113
6.4 Stability,Instability,andMetastability..........................114
6.5 DrivingForceforSolidification.......................................115
6.6 Solid-StatePhaseChanges.............................................118
6.7 PrecipitateCoarsening....................................................118
6.8 GrainGrowth...................................................................119
6.9 Recrystallization...............................................................120
6.10 SizesofDrivingForces....................................................120
WorkedExample......................................................................121
CHAPTER 7 Kinetics 1—Diffusive Transformations.........................125
7.1 Introduction......................................................................125
7.2 Solidification.....................................................................125
7.3 Heat-FlowEffects............................................................131
7.4 Solid-StatePhaseChanges.............................................132
7.5 Diffusion-ControlledKinetics..........................................132
7.6 ShapesofGrainsandPhases..........................................134
WorkedExample......................................................................136
CHAPTER 8 Kinetics 2—Nucleation..................................................141
8.1 Introduction......................................................................141
8.2 NucleationinLiquids......................................................141
8.3 HeterogeneousNucleation..............................................143
8.4 NucleationinSolids.........................................................147
8.5 Summary...........................................................................148
8.6 NucleationEverywhere...................................................148
WorkedExample......................................................................149
Contents vii
CHAPTER 9 Kinetics3—DisplaciveTransformations......................155
9.1 Introduction....................................................................155
9.2 Diffusivef.c.c.tob.c.c.TransformationinPureIron...156
9.3 Time(cid:1)Temperature(cid:1)TransformationDiagram............160
9.4 Displacivef.c.c.tob.c.c.Transformation.....................161
9.5 DetailsofMartensiteFormation...................................163
9.6 MartensiteTransformationinSteels............................165
WorkedExample......................................................................167
CHAPTER 10 Case Studies inPhaseTransformations.......................171
10.1 Introduction....................................................................171
10.2 MakingRain...................................................................171
10.3 Fine-GrainedCastings..................................................173
10.4 SingleCrystalsforSemiconductors..............................178
10.5 AmorphousMetals........................................................179
WorkedExample......................................................................182
CHAPTER 11 Light Alloys....................................................................189
11.1 Introduction....................................................................189
11.2 SolidSolutionHardening...............................................190
11.3 Age(Precipitation)Hardening......................................193
11.4 WorkHardening.............................................................200
WorkedExample......................................................................200
CHAPTER 12 Steels1—Carbon Steels.................................................205
12.1 Introduction....................................................................205
12.2 MicrostructuresAfterSlowCooling(Normalizing).....205
12.3 MechanicalPropertiesofNormalizedSteels...............211
12.4 Quenched-and-TemperedSteels..................................211
12.5 NotesontheTTTDiagram...........................................212
CHAPTER 13 Steels2—Alloy Steels....................................................221
13.1 Introduction....................................................................221
13.2 Hardenability.................................................................221
13.3 SolutionHardening........................................................225
13.4 PrecipitationHardening................................................225
13.5 CorrosionResistance.....................................................226
13.6 StainlessSteels..............................................................226
13.7 PhasesinStainlessSteels.............................................229
13.8 ImprovingStainlessSteels............................................230
WorkedExample......................................................................230
viii Contents
CHAPTER 14 Case Studies inSteels...................................................237
14.1 DetectiveWorkAfteraBoilerExplosion......................237
14.2 WeldingSteelsSafely....................................................241
14.3 TheCaseoftheBrokenHammer.................................244
CHAPTER 15 Processing Metals1.......................................................255
15.1 Introduction....................................................................255
15.2 Casting...........................................................................256
15.3 DeformationProcessing................................................266
15.4 Recrystallization.............................................................272
WorkedExample......................................................................274
CHAPTER 16 Processing Metals2.......................................................279
16.1 Machining......................................................................279
16.2 Joining............................................................................280
16.3 HeatTreating.................................................................282
16.4 SpecialTopics................................................................285
WorkedExample......................................................................290
Part B Ceramics
CHAPTER 17 Ceramics.........................................................................299
17.1 Introduction....................................................................299
17.2 GenericCeramics...........................................................304
17.3 CeramicComposites......................................................307
17.4 DataforCeramics..........................................................307
CHAPTER 18 Ceramic Structures........................................................313
18.1 Introduction....................................................................313
18.2 IonicandCovalentCeramics........................................313
18.3 SimpleIonicCeramics...................................................314
18.4 SimpleCovalentCeramics............................................316
18.5 SilicaandSilicates.........................................................317
18.6 SilicateGlasses..............................................................319
18.7 CeramicAlloys...............................................................320
18.8 MicrostructuresofCeramics.........................................321
18.9 VitreousCeramics..........................................................322
18.10 StoneandRock..............................................................323
18.11 CeramicComposites......................................................323
WorkedExample......................................................................323
Contents ix
CHAPTER 19 Mechanical Propertiesof Ceramics..............................327
19.1 Introduction....................................................................327
19.2 ElasticModuli................................................................327
19.3 Strength,Hardness,andLatticeResistance................328
19.4 FractureStrengthofCeramics......................................330
19.5 ModulusofRupture.......................................................332
19.6 CompressionTest..........................................................333
19.7 ThermalShockResistance............................................335
19.8 TimeDependenceofStrength......................................335
19.9 CreepofCeramics.........................................................337
CHAPTER 20 Processing Ceramics......................................................345
20.1 Introduction....................................................................345
20.2 ProductionofEngineeringCeramics............................345
20.3 FormingEngineeringCeramics....................................346
20.4 ProductionandFormingofGlass.................................350
20.5 ProcessingPottery,Porcelain,andBrick.....................352
20.6 ImprovingCeramics.......................................................352
20.7 JoiningCeramics...........................................................355
WorkedExample......................................................................356
CHAPTER 21 Cement and Concrete....................................................361
21.1 Introduction....................................................................361
21.2 ChemistryofCement.....................................................361
21.3 StructureofPortlandCement.......................................366
21.4 Concrete.........................................................................368
21.5 StrengthofCementandConcrete................................370
21.6 High-StrengthCement..................................................372
21.7 ReinforcingCementandConcrete...............................373
WorkedExample......................................................................375
CHAPTER 22 Case Studies inCeramics..............................................379
22.1 HardasFlint..................................................................379
22.2 Slate—NaturalRoofingMaterial...................................380
22.3 GlassRoofBeams..........................................................384
WorkedExample......................................................................388
Part C Polymers
CHAPTER 23 Polymers.........................................................................393
23.1 Introduction....................................................................393
23.2 GenericPolymers...........................................................395
x Contents
23.3 MaterialData..................................................................398
WorkedExample......................................................................401
CHAPTER 24 Polymer Structures.........................................................405
24.1 Introduction....................................................................405
24.2 MolecularLength...........................................................406
24.3 MolecularArchitecture..................................................408
24.4 MolecularPackingandGlassTransition.....................410
WorkedExample......................................................................415
CHAPTER 25 Mechanical Properties ofPolymers..............................419
25.1 Introduction....................................................................419
25.2 Stiffness—TimeandTemperatureDependent
Modulus............................................................................420
25.3 Strength—ColdDrawingandCrazing..........................430
CHAPTER 26 Processing Polymers......................................................441
26.1 Introduction....................................................................441
26.2 PolymerSynthesis..........................................................442
26.3 PolymerAlloys...............................................................443
26.4 FormingPolymers..........................................................445
26.5 JoiningPolymers............................................................449
WorkedExample......................................................................449
CHAPTER 27 Case Studies inPolymers..............................................457
27.1 FatalBungeeJumpingAccident..................................457
27.2 PolyethyleneGasPipes.................................................464
27.3 UltrastrongFibersforYachtRigging...........................470
Part D Composites
CHAPTER 28 Properties of Composites and Foams...........................477
28.1 Introduction....................................................................477
28.2 FiberComposites...........................................................478
28.3 Modulus..........................................................................479
28.4 TensileStrength.............................................................481
28.5 Toughness......................................................................484
28.6 FoamsandCellularSolids.............................................486
28.7 PropertiesofFoams.......................................................487
28.8 MaterialsthatareEngineered......................................490