Energy Storage: Systems and Components

291 Pages·2018·14.75 MB·English

by  Alfred Rufer

Energy Storage
Systems and Components

Energy Storage
Systems and Components
Alfred Rufer
CRC Press
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Contents
Author .....................................................................................................................xiii
List of Symbols ........................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 Generalities on Energy Storage ............................................................1
1.1 History and Context of Use .......................................................1
1.2 General Definitions ....................................................................3
1.2.1 Definitions of Energy ...................................................3
1.2.2 Energy and Power .........................................................5
1.2.3 About the Distribution of Energy .................................6
1.2.4 Storage Form of Energy ...............................................6
1.2.5 Intermediary Conversion ..............................................7
1.2.6 Control and Diagnostic .................................................8
1.3 Technical Definitions .................................................................8
1.3.1 C: Capacity ...................................................................8
1.3.2 DoD: Depth of Discharge .............................................9
1.3.3 SoC: State of Charge ....................................................9
1.3.4 “Round-Trip” Efficiency under Normal, Ideal,
and Real Conditions .....................................................9
1.3.5 Charge and Discharge Losses .....................................10
1.3.6 Losses due to Self-Discharge .....................................10
1.3.7 Total Losses ................................................................11
1.3.8 Round-Trip Efficiency ................................................11
References ..........................................................................................13
Chapter 2 Energy Storage Systems .....................................................................15
2.1 Physical Systems .....................................................................15
2.1.1 Gravitational Hydro Pumped Storage ........................15
2.1.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage ................................16
2.1.3 Rotational Kinetic Energy (Flywheels) ......................17
2.2 Electrical Systems ...................................................................17
2.2.1 Superconductive Magnetic Energy Storage
Systems (SMES) ........................................................17
2.2.2 Capacitive (and Supercapacitive) Systems .................18
2.2.3 Electrochemical Systems ............................................19
2.2.3.1 Oxidation and Reduction ............................20
2.2.4 Flow Batteries .............................................................21
2.2.5 Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Storage ...............................21
References ..........................................................................................22
v
vi Contents
Chapter 3 Comparative Ratings and Properties ..................................................23
3.1 System Ratings ........................................................................23
3.2 Energy Density ........................................................................23
3.3 Power Density and Specific Power ..........................................25
3.4 Ragone Chart ...........................................................................25
3.5 Theory of Ragone Plots ...........................................................26
3.5.1 Ragone Plot of a Battery ............................................27
3.5.2 Case of the Capacitor .................................................29
3.5.3 Case of Superconductive Magnetic Energy
Storage .......................................................................31
3.6 Modified Ragone Representation ............................................31
3.6.1 Power Amplification in Successive Stages .................33
3.7 Typical Efficiencies, Lifetime, and Costs ................................35
Exercise 1: Normal and Fast Charge of Batteries in EVs—The
Question of Energy Efficiency ...........................................................36
Exercise 2: Kinetic Energy Recovery System ....................................45
References ..........................................................................................51
Chapter 4 Electrochemical Energy Storage ........................................................53
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................53
4.1.1 System Structure ........................................................53
4.1.2 Elementary Principle ..................................................53
4.2 Different Types of Accumulators .............................................56
4.2.1 Accumulators with Aqueous Electrolyte ....................56
4.2.1.1 Lead–Acid Accumulator .............................56
4.2.1.2 Alkaline Accumulators ...............................57
4.2.1.3 The Nickel-Iron Battery ..............................58
4.2.1.4 Nickel–Cadmium Accumulator ..................58
4.2.1.5 Ni-MH Accumulator ...................................59
4.2.2 Accumulators with Nonaqueous Electrolyte ..............60
4.2.2.1 Lithium-Metal Accumulators ......................60
4.2.2.2 Lithium-Metal Polymer Cells .....................60
4.2.2.3 Lithium-Ion Accumulator ...........................61
4.2.2.4 Lithium–Iron Phosphate (LFP) Cells ..........62
4.2.2.5 Lithium-ion Polymer (Li-Po) Cells ............62
4.2.2.6 Lithium–Titanate Cells (LTO) ....................62
4.2.3 Large Size Accumulators ............................................62
4.2.3.1 Sodium–Sulfur (NaS) Battery .....................62
4.2.3.2 Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRB) .......64
4.2.3.3 Chemical Reactions of the VRB Battery ......65
4.3 Modeling of Batteries ..............................................................66
4.3.1 Introduction ................................................................66
4.3.2 Generic Models of Batteries .......................................68
Contents vii
4.3.2.1 R Model ....................................................68
int
4.3.2.2 Thévenin Battery Model .............................68
4.3.2.3 RC Network Battery Model ........................70
4.3.2.4 Model of the Extracted Charges .................71
4.3.3 Thermal Behavior of a Battery ...................................72
4.3.4 Thermal Modeling ......................................................72
4.3.4.1 Weighted Average Value of C ....................75
v
4.3.5 Multiphysics Modeling...............................................77
4.3.5.1 Global Multiphysics Model ........................77
4.3.5.2 Electrochemical Stack Model .....................78
4.3.5.3 Example of a Small Stand-Alone System ...79
4.3.5.4 Mechanical Model ......................................82
4.3.5.5 Constant and Variable Flow Rate of the
Electrolytes .................................................82
4.3.5.6 From a Positive to a Negative Energy
Efficiency ....................................................83
4.4 Battery Management Systems (BMS) .....................................84
4.4.1 Motivation ..................................................................84
4.4.2 Main Functions of a Battery Management System ....85
4.4.3 Cell Balancing Circuits ..............................................86
4.4.3.1 Active Dissipative Cell Balancing
Circuits .......................................................87
4.4.3.2 Active Nondissipative Cell Balancing
Circuits ........................................................88
4.5 Aging of Electrochemical Batteries .........................................89
4.5.1 Introduction ................................................................89
4.5.2 Global Performance Parameters .................................90
4.5.3 Degradation Mechanisms of Lead–Acid Batteries .....90
4.5.3.1 Stratification ................................................90
4.5.3.2 Sulfation ......................................................91
4.5.3.3 Corrosion ....................................................91
4.5.3.4 Active Mass Degradation ............................91
4.5.3.5 High Temperature .......................................91
4.5.4 Lithium-Ion Batteries Aging Effects ..........................91
4.5.4.1 Anode Side ..................................................92
4.5.4.2 Cathode Side ...............................................92
4.5.4.3 Identification of the Influencing Factors .....93
4.5.4.4 Example of Calendric and Cycling
Aging Behavior ...........................................93
4.5.5 Cycling Aging Model .................................................94
4.5.6 Calendar Aging Model ...............................................95
4.5.7 Complete Aging Model ..............................................97
Exercise 3: Battery for an Electric Car: Design and Thermal
Behavior .............................................................................................98
References ........................................................................................104
viii Contents
Chapter 5 Energy Storage by Means of Supercapacitors ..................................107
5.1 General Characteristics on Supercapacitors ..........................107
5.1.1 Principle and Properties............................................107
5.1.1.1 Lifetime .....................................................107
5.1.2 Phenomenology of Storage Devices .........................108
5.1.3 Materials and Construction ......................................110
5.1.4 Main Properties (Summary) .....................................111
5.1.5 Safety and Limitations .............................................112
5.1.6 Example of Components on the Market ...................112
5.2 Modeling Supercapacitors .....................................................113
5.2.1 Basic Model ..............................................................113
5.2.2 Simple Equivalent Scheme .......................................113
5.2.3 Specific Behavior of Supercapacitors .......................114
5.2.3.1 Voltage-Dependent Capacitance ...............114
5.2.4 Completed Equivalent Scheme .................................115
5.2.5 Relaxation Phenomenon ...........................................116
5.3 Design of a Supercapacitive Bank .........................................116
5.3.1 Series and Parallel Connections of Elements
for Larger Power and Higher Capacity ....................116
5.3.2 Defining the Needed Energy Capacity .....................117
5.3.3 From the Needed Energy to the Number
of Supercapacitors ....................................................118
5.3.4 Power Capability ......................................................119
5.4 Charging and Discharging Procedure of Supercapacitors .....120
5.4.1 Principles and Definitions ........................................120
5.4.2 Properties of Charge/Discharge with Controlled
Current ......................................................................121
5.4.3 Efficiency for Charge/Discharge with Controlled
Current ......................................................................121
5.4.4 Energy Efficiency and Power Availability ................122
5.4.4.1 Charge .......................................................122
5.4.4.2 Discharge ...................................................122
5.5 Design Example of a Supercapacitive Bank ..........................123
5.5.1 Analysis of Energy Efficiency and Power
Availability ...............................................................123
5.5.2 Thermal Aspects .......................................................125
5.6 Power Electronics Converters ................................................126
5.6.1 Power Electronics Interfaces ....................................126
5.6.1.1 Association of a Boost and a Buck
Converter ...................................................127
5.6.2 Series Connection of Supercapacitors ......................127
5.6.3 Voltage Balancing .....................................................128
5.6.4 Example of Voltage Unbalance and
Consequences on the Energy Content ......................129
5.6.5 Voltage Equalization Circuits ...................................129
Contents ix
5.7 Application Examples ...........................................................131
5.7.1 Energy Storage in Transportation .............................131
5.7.2 Elevator .....................................................................133
5.7.3 Innovative Concept: Sequential Supply ...................133
Exercise 4: Energy Storage with Supercapacitors, Recovery
of Kinetic Energy of a Train .............................................................138
References ........................................................................................149
Chapter 6 Energy Storage Systems Based on Compressed Air ........................151
6.1 Generalities on Compressed Air Energy Storage Systems ....151
6.1.1 System Description ..................................................151
6.1.2 History ......................................................................151
6.1.3 Motivation ................................................................152
6.2 Elementary Properties ...........................................................154
6.2.1 Physical Principle .....................................................154
6.2.2 Adiabatic, Polytropic, and Isothermal
Compression and Expansion ....................................157
6.2.2.1 Compression .............................................158
6.2.2.2 Expansion .................................................158
6.2.3 From Single Stage to Multistage ..............................158
6.2.4 Higher Storage Pressure for an Increased Energy
Density .....................................................................159
6.2.5 Concept of the Liquid Piston: From “Pneumatic”
to “Hydropneumatic” ...............................................160
6.3 From Poor to Increased Energetic Performance
of Compressed Air Energy Conversion .................................161
6.3.1 Energy Loss due to the Use of a Pressure
Reduction Valve ........................................................161
6.3.2 Poor Energetic Performance of the Classical
Pneumatic Actuators .................................................164
6.3.3 Addition of an Expansion Chamber (The Motor
Development International (MDI) Motor) ...............164
6.3.4 Principle of the Liquid Piston with Integrated
Heat Exchanger ........................................................165
6.3.5 Concept of the Finned Piston ...................................167
6.3.5.1 Performances of the Finned Piston
System .......................................................168
6.4 Medium-Scale Compressed Air with “Closed” Gas Cycle ......170
6.5 Underwater CAES .................................................................173
6.5.1 Model of the Storage Infrastructure .........................173
6.6 Compressed Air for Mobility .................................................176
6.6.1 Compressed Air Car (MDI) ......................................176
Exercise 5: Compressed Air Energy Storage....................................177
References ........................................................................................186