Energy Efficient Buildings with Solar and Geothermal Resources

596 Pages·2014·10.101 MB·English

by  Ursula Eicker

Energy Effi cient Buildings with Solar and
Geothermal Resources
Energy Effi cient Buildings with Solar and
Geothermal Resources
Ursula Eicker
Stuttgart University of Applied Sciences, Germany
This edition (cid:2) rst published 2014
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for
ISBN 9781118352243
Set in 8 on 12 pt Roboto Slab by Silvio Barta
1(cid:3)2014
Energy Effi cient Buildings with Solar and Geothermal Resources v
Contents
Preface ix
1 Energy consumption of buildings 1
1.1 Residential buildings 4
1.2 Offi ce and administrative buildings 6
1.3 Air conditioning 9
1.4 Lighting electricity consumption 13
1.5 Infl uence of the urban form on energy consumption of buildings 15
1.6 Office buildings in an urban context 17
1.7 Residential buildings in an urban context 21
1.8 Site density eff ect 23
1.9 Climate eff ect 26
1.10 Albedo eff ects 27
1.11 Thermal properties of the building envelope 28
1.12 Solar gains and glazing 29
1.13 Building typology and urban form 31
1.14 Conclusions 34
References 35
2 Part A: Passive solar 37
2.1 Passive solar use by glazing 39
2.2 Transparent thermal insulation (TTI) 45
2.3 Heat storage by interior building elements 50
Part B: Natural ventilation 67
2.4 Analytical methods for volume-fl ow calculations 73
2.5 Air fl ow network simulations 79
2.6 Ventilation potentials 83
2.7 Thermal comfort and energy savings in offi ce rooms with controlled natural ventilation 89
2.8 Weekly simulations with dynamic boundary conditions 92
2.9 Natural single-sided ventilation with sliding windows 93
2.10 Annual simulations 96
Part C: Daylighting of buildings 101
2.11 Luminance and illuminance 110
2.12 Visual performance and quality of lighting 122
2.13 Light measurements 126
2.14 Sky luminous intensity models 127
2.15 Daylight distribution in interior spaces 130
2.16 Calculation of daylight availability in buildings 139
2.17 Standardisation and calculation methods 142
2.18 Determination of needed artifi cial light sources 146
References 147
vi Contents
3 Solar and geothermal resource 149
3.1 Extra-terrestrial solar irradiance 151
3.2 Sun–Earth geometry 154
3.3 Equator coordinates 155
3.4 Horizon coordinates 158
3.5 Atmospheric transmission and spectral irradiance 162
3.6 Statistical production of hourly irradiance data records 169
3.7 Global irradiance and irradiance on inclined surfaces 177
3.8 Shading 183
3.9 Temperature time series modelling 189
3.10 Geothermal resource 196
References 201
4 Solar thermal heating 203
4.1 Markets and economics 206
4.2 System overview 209
4.3 Systems engineering 217
4.4 Large solar plants for heating drinking water with short-term stores 232
4.5 Solar district heating 239
4.6 Modelling of thermal collectors 244
4.7 Storage modelling 269
4.8 Solar air collectors 277
4.9 Calculation of the available thermal power of solar air collectors 281
4.10 Design of the air circuit 293
References 296
5 Solar cooling 297
5.1 Introduction to the technologies 300
5.2 Technology trends 302
5.3 The absorption cooling process and its components 307
5.4 Components of absorption chillers 311
5.5 Physical principles of the absorption process 313
5.6 Energy balances and performance fi gures of an absorption chiller 324
5.7 Static absorption cooling model 335
5.8 Parameter identifi cation for the static absorption cooling machine model 340
5.9 Open cycle desiccant cooling 343
5.10 Physical and technological bases of sorption-supported air conditioning 347
5.11 The technology of heat recovery 359
5.12 Technology humidifi er 368
5.13 Design limits and climatic boundary conditions 372
5.14 Energy balance of sorption-supported air conditioning 375
5.15 Closed cycle adsorption cooling 380
5.16 Heat rejection and auxiliary electricity consumption 395
References 417
6 Geothermal heating and cooling 419
6.1 Direct geothermal energy use for cooling and preheating of buildings 423
6.2 Indirect geothermal energy use 433
6.3 Geothermal heat exchangers for chiller heat rejection 437
6.4 Modeling of geothermal heat exchangers 439
Energy Effi cient Buildings with Solar and Geothermal Resources vii
6.5 Economics of geothermal heat exchangers 451
6.6 Performance summary on geothermal heat exchangers 455
References 458
7 Photovoltaics 459
7.1 Structure of grid-connected systems 461
7.2 Solar cell technologies 463
7.3 Module technology 464
7.4 Building integration and costs 464
7.5 Energy production and the performance ratio of PV systems 466
7.6 Physical fundamentals of solar electricity production 467
7.7 Current-voltage characteristics 471
7.8 PV performance with shading 495
7.9 Simple temperature model for PV modules 498
7.10 Systems engineering 500
References 512
8 Compression chillers and heat pumps 513
8.1 Overview of heat pump and chiller technologies 515
8.2 Energy effi ciency of heat pumps and chillers 518
8.3 Heat pump and compression chiller modelling 522
8.4 Case studies for photovoltaic compression versus thermal cooling 535
8.5 Conclusions on case studies for photovoltaic and thermal cooling 553
References 554
9 Thermal analysis of building-integrated solar components 555
9.1 Empirical thermal model of building-integrated photovoltaic 561
9.2 Energy balance and stationary thermal model of ventilated double facades 563
9.3 Heat transfer coeffi cients for the interior and facade air gap 567
9.4 Building-integrated solar components (U and g values) 570
9.5 Warm-air generation by photovoltaic facades 573
9.6 Photovoltaic thermal collectors for heating and cooling generation 576
References 585
Index 587
Energy Effi cient Buildings with Solar and Geothermal Resources ix
Preface
One of the world’s major challenges is the transformation of its energy system, which for a short
period in human history has been based on fossil fuels. These resources are approaching their end
and create serious environmental damages by emissions and long-term waste issues.
Renewable energy sources have always been available on Earth and can easily cover
the planet´s energy demand. New technologies in solar cell and wind turbine manufacturing,
innovative materials and ef(cid:2) ciency strategies support the transition to environmentally friendly
energy systems.
Especially in urban areas, buildings are major energy consumers. All together they account
for about 40% of (cid:2) nal energy consumption worldwide and are responsible for about one third of
overall CO emissions. In urban structures, building energy consumption is typically twice as high
2
as the need for transport energy, and the energy-saving potential is large. Up to 20% can be saved
in the short term and within the next decades buildings should become climate neutral. In urban
areas, solar technologies are the most suitable energy sources, as solar modules and collectors can
be easily integrated into buildings. In denser urban structures, often the individual roof and facade
surface areas are not suf(cid:2) cient to make each building zero energy. Here new concepts are required
for the design of local supply systems in city quarters with adequate distribution networks and
storage capacities.
Planners, engineers and researchers need fundamental knowledge to deal with (cid:4) uctuating
renewable energy sources, to design adequate storage systems and to integrate the energy systems
in highly ef(cid:2) cient buildings. To achieve ef(cid:2) ciency goals, buildings need to use passive and low-
energy resources such as solar gains, daylight, natural ventilation or geothermal heat exchange
as intelligently as possible.
This new textbook on energy ef(cid:2) cient buildings with solar and geothermal resources
provides detailed insight into the design and physics of energy ef(cid:2) cient buildings. It discusses
the theoretical background of solar thermal cooling and heating, of photovoltaics and geothermal
energy, and provides information on applications and costs. Many examples help to apply the
theory to real praxis applications.
The reader as an engineer, physicist, energy planner, researcher, student or informed
layman will pro(cid:2) t from the textbook by acquiring in-depth knowledge of today´s new energy
systems and building concepts.
x Preface
This book is based on the knowledge developed within 20 years of research at the Stuttgart
University of Applied Sciences on buildings and renewable energy systems. The research centre
Sustainable Energy Technologies has been successfully involved in many national and European
research and demonstration projects on solar cooling and heating, geothermal energy use,
simulation and energy management, zero energy buildings, photovoltaic system technology and
many other topics.
Without the support of this research group with about 30 scientists, the broad subject
range of the book would not have been possible. I would like to especially thank PhD students
and now doctors of philosophy Dilay Kesten and Aysegül Tereci, who produced many results of the
(cid:2) rst two chapters of building energy ef(cid:2) ciency in the urban context; PhD student Tobias Schulze
who worked on natural ventilation, and Antoine Dalibard and Felix Thumm who developed the
compression chiller and photovoltaic thermal collector models; Dr. Dirk Pietruschka, who did
many simulations on solar cooling systems; Ruben Pesch for his contribution to geothermal
energy analysis and Mariela Cotrado for her comparison of thermal and electric cooling; Eric
Duminil for his very nice irradiance maps; and all the other members of our research team, who
discussed the physics and applications of solar and geothermal energy use in buildings.
The layout and design of this book has been completely done by Silvio Barta, an excellent
graphic designer, who is even interested in energy technologies and has provided many helpful
comments not just on design, but on the contents of the book. Many thanks to his continuous and
often tedious work on many details and design issues that are usually lost when concentrating
on the contents.
Most heartful thanks are due to Juergen Schumacher, who continuously supports me in
my work and life. It is with his simulation environment INSEL that most of the simulation results
were obtained.
Ursula Eicker
Stuttgart, August 2013
1 Energy consumption of
buildings
2 Energy consumption of buildings
Figure 1.1 (previous page): Low-energy residential urban development in Scharnhauser Park, near Stuttgart,
Germany (Photo: Ursula Pietzsch).
Figure 1.2 The ebök passive standard offi ce building in Tübingen, Germany after (top), before (bottom left)
and during (bottom right) renovation work (Photo: eboek GmbH, Tuebingen).