Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy

753 Pages·2006·10.63 MB·english

by  Joseph A. Angelo

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
space and astronomy
joseph a. angelo, jr.
To the memory of my parents, Rose and Joseph Angelo,
whose sacrifices, love, and dedication to family taught me
what is most important in life and showed me how to see
the hand of God in all things, large and small,
in this beautiful universe.
Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy
Copyright © 2006 by Joseph A. Angelo, Jr.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information
storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from
the publisher. For information contact:
Facts On File, Inc.
An imprint of Infobase Publishing
132 West 31st Street
New York NY 10001
ISBN-10: 0-8160-5330-8
ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-5330-8
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Angelo, Joseph A.
Encyclopedia of space and astronomy / Joseph A. Angelo, Jr.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8160-5330-8 (hardcover)
1. Space astronomy—Encyclopedias. 2. Astronomy—Encyclopedias. I. Title.
QB136.A55 2006
520′.3—dc222004030800
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Printed in the United States of America
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This book is printed on acid-free paper.
C
ONTENTS
Acknowledgments
vi
Introduction
vii
Entries A–Z
1
Feature Essays:
“We Are Made of Stardust”
5
“Moon Bases and the Third Millennium”
36
“The Ballistic Missile—A Revolution In Warfare”
73
“Cape Canaveral: The American Stairway to the Stars”
108
“Hazards of Space Travel”
123
“Switchboards in the Sky”
141
“Will It Rain on My Parade?”
396
“Reaching Beyond the Solar System”
455
“Role of the Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG)
in Space Exploration”
486
“Space Technology and National Security”
490
“Space-Age Archaeology”
499
“Space-Age Guardian Angels”
534
“Consequences of Interstellar Contact”
536
“Mariner: The Family of NASA Spacecraft that Changed Our
Understanding of the Inner Solar System”
604
“Cosmic Consequences of Space Exploration”
619
Appendixes:
Appendix I
Further Reading
669
Appendix II
Exploring Cyberspace
670
Appendix III
A Chronology of Space and Astronomy
672
Appendix IV
Planetary Data
691
Appendix V
How Planets, Moons, Asteroids, Comets, and Interesting Celestial Objects
and Planetary Surface Features Are Named
693
Index
706
A
CKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to publicly acknowledge the generous support of the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA), the United States Air Force (USAF), the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS), the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), and the
European Space Agency (Washington, D.C., office) during the preparation of this
book. Special thanks are also extended to the editorial staff at Facts On File, par-
ticularly my editor, Frank K. Darmstadt. The staff at the Evans Library of Florida
Tech again provided valuable research support. Finally, without the help of my
wife, Joan, the manuscript and illustrations for this book would never have sur-
vived three consecutive hurricanes during the summer of 2004 and then emerge
from chaotic piles of hastily moved boxes to become a workable document.
vi
I
NTRODUCTION
The Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy introduces the exciting relationship
between modern astronomy and space technology. The book also examines the
technical, social, and philosophical influences this important combination of sci-
ence and technology exerts on our global civilization. With the start of the space
age in 1957, scientists gained the ability to place sophisticated observatories in
outer space. Since such orbiting astronomical facilities operate above the masking
limitations imposed by our planet’s atmosphere, they can collect scientific data in
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum previously unavailable to astronomers
who could only look at the heavens from the surface of Earth.
Data from orbiting astronomical observatories, as well as from an armada of
planetary exploration spacecraft, have completely transformed observational
astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology. Space technology has expanded our
view of the universe. Scientists now enjoy meeting the universe face-to-face and
harvesting enormous quantities of interesting new scientific data from all the
information-rich portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Some spacecraft are
designed to investigate mysterious cosmic rays—those very tiny, but extremely
energetic, pieces of galactic and extragalactic material that provide tantalizing
clues about extremely violent cosmic processes, such as exploding stars and col-
liding galaxies. Other spacecraft have explored the solar system.
Through developments in space technology, planetary bodies within the
solar system are no longer the unreachable points of wandering light that
intrigued ancient stargazers. Today, as a result of flybys, orbital reconnaissance
missions, and even landings by a variety of interesting robot spacecraft, these
mysterious celestial objects have become familiar worlds. The marvel of space
technology has also allowed 12 human beings to walk on the surface of another
world (the Moon) and to return safely to Earth with hand-selected collections of
rock and soil samples for detailed investigation by fellow scientists.
The major entries and special essays within this book highlight the synthesis
of modern astronomy and space technology. This fortuitous union of science and
technology has created an explosion in knowledge amounting to the start of a
second scientific revolution—similar, but even more consequential, than the first.
The first scientific revolution began in the 16th century, when a few bold
astronomers used their pioneering observations and mathematics to challenge the
long-cherished philosophical position that Earth was the stationary center of the
universe.
This book serves as a guide and introduction to the fundamental concepts,
basic principles, famous and less-known people, major events, and impact of
astronomy and space technology. The collection of biographical entries, some
brief and others a bit more extensive, allows the reader to discover firsthand the
genius, sacrifice, visionary brilliance, and hard work of the men and women who
established modern astronomy and/or brought about the age of space. Special
essays address a variety of interesting, intellectually stimulating topics and should
help high school and college students better understand, appreciate, and even
vii
viii Introduction
participate in the great space age revolution that embraces our global civilization.
The general reader will find major entries, such as rocket, telescope, and space-
craft, very useful as introductory treatments of complicated subjects. Major
entries are prepared in a simple, easy to read style and are generously comple-
mented by illustrations, photographs, and visionary artist renderings. The numer-
ous supporting entries throughout the book serve as concise capsules of basic
information. An extensive network of cross-references assists the reader in fur-
ther pursuing a particular scientific topic or technical theme. Entries that describe
the significance of past, current, and future space activities generally include a
balanced combination of visual (graphic) and written material. Images from con-
temporary space missions take the reader beyond Earth and provide a firsthand
view of some of the most interesting celestial objects in our solar system.
Many major entries provide compact technical discussions concerning basic
concepts considered fundamental in understanding modern astronomy and space
technology. While mathematics is certainly important in astronomy and space
technology, the book avoids an oppressive use of formulas and equations. Such
detailed mathematical treatments are considered more appropriate for specialized
textbooks and are beyond the scope of this introductory work. Other entries
summarize contemporary astronomical knowledge or discuss the results of
important space exploration missions. Because of the rapidly changing nature of
contemporary space missions, the reader is encouraged to pursue updates
through many of the excellent Internet sites suggested in Appendix II. Still other
entries, such as horizon mission methodology and starship, are designed to stim-
ulate intellectual curiosity by challenging the reader to think “outside the box,”
or, more appropriately, “beyond this planet.” These entries pose intriguing ques-
tions, introduce scientifically based speculations, and suggest some of the antici-
pated consequences of future space missions. The search for extraterrestrial life is
another important example. Right now the subject of extraterrestrial life resides
in the nebulous buffer zone between science fiction and highly speculative sci-
ence, but, through advanced space exploration projects, these discussions could
easily become the factual centerpiece of contemporary scientific investigation.
The confirmed discovery of extraterrestrial life, extinct or existent—no mat-
ter how humble in form—on Mars or perhaps on one of the intriguing Galilean
moons of Jupiter could force a major revision in the chauvinistic planetary view-
point human beings have tacitly embraced for centuries. This deeply embedded
terrestrial chauvinism suggests that planet Earth and, by extrapolation, the uni-
verse were created primarily for human benefit. Perhaps this is so, but the discov-
ery of life elsewhere could shatter such a myopic viewpoint and encourage a
wholesale reevaluation of long-standing philosophical questions such as “Who
are we as a species?” and “What is our role in the cosmic scheme of things?”
The somewhat speculative approach taken by certain entries is necessary if
the book is to properly project the potential impact of space exploration. What
has occurred in the four or so decades of space exploration is just the tip of the
intellectual iceberg. Space missions planned for the next few decades promise to
accelerate the pace and excitement of the contemporary scientific revolution trig-
gered by the union of space technology and astronomy.
Special effort has been made to provide not only easily understood technical
entries, but also entries that are set in an appropriate scientific, social, and/or
philosophical context. This approach extends the information content of the
book to a wider audience—an audience that includes those who want to become
scientists and engineers as well as those who plan to pursue other careers but
desire to understand how astronomy and space technology affect their lives.
Most early civilizations paid close attention to the sky. Naked eye astrono-
my, the most ancient and widely practiced of the physical sciences, provided
social and political cohesion to early societies and often became an integral part
of religious customs. To many ancient peoples the easily observed and recorded
cyclic movement of the Sun, Moon, planets (only five are visible without the
astronomical telescope), and stars provided a certain degree of order and stability
in their lives. After all, these ancient peoples did not possess the highly accurate
Introduction ix
personal timepieces that tend to control our modern lives. In fact, people living in
today’s schedule-dominated, fast-paced societies often become totally detached
from the natural diurnal cycle that closely regulated the lifestyles and activities of
ancient peoples. As citizens of a 24/7-wired world that is always “open for busi-
ness,” it is sometimes difficult for us to appreciate how the heavens and nature
touched every aspect of a person’s life in ancient societies. For these early peoples
stargazing, myth, religion, and astrology often combined to form what scientists
now refer to as “ancient astronomy.” So it should not come as too great a sur-
prise to us that these peoples often deified the Sun, the Moon, and other impor-
tant celestial objects. Their lives were interwoven with and became dependent on
the reasonably predictable motions of such commonly observed but apparently
unreachable celestial objects.
Looking back in history from the vantage point of 21st-century science,
some of us might be tempted to ridicule such ancient activities. How could the
early Egyptians or the Aztecs deify the Sun? But are we that much different with
respect to how celestial objects control our lives? As a result of space technology
our global civilization has become highly interwoven with and dependent on
human-made celestial objects. In addition to the revolution in modern astrono-
my, spacecraft now support global communications, are an essential component
of national defense, monitor weather conditions, provide valuable scientific data
about the Earth as a complex, highly interactive system, and help travelers find
their way on land, on sea, and in the air. A number of special entries and com-
panion essays provide introductory discussions on just how much space technol-
ogy affects many aspects of modern life.
The scientific method—that is, the practice of science as a form of natural
philosophy or an organized way of looking at and explaining the world and how
things work—emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries in western Europe.
Telescope-assisted astronomical observations encouraged Galileo Galilei,
Johannes Kepler, Sir Isaac Newton, and other pioneering thinkers to overthrow
two millennia of geocentric (Earth-centered) cosmology and replace it with a
more scientifically sound, heliocentric view of the solar system. Observational
astronomy gave rise to the first scientific revolution and led to the practice of
organized science (the scientific method)—one of the greatest contributions of
Western civilization to the human race.
Today the combination of astronomy and space technology is encouraging
scientists to revisit some of humankind’s most important and long-pondered
philosophical questions: Who are we? Where did we come from? Where are we
going? Are we alone in this vast universe? Future space missions will define the
cosmic philosophy of an emerging solar system civilization. As the detailed
exploration of distant worlds leads to presently unimaginable discoveries, space
technology and modern astronomy will enable us to learn more about our role
and place as an intelligent species in a vast and beautiful universe.
This book is not just a carefully prepared collection of technical facts. It also
serves as a special guide for those readers who want to discover how astronomy
and space technology are making the universe both a destination and a destiny
for the human race. For example, the entry on nucleosynthesisand the essay “We
Are Made of Stardust” will help readers discover that the biogenic elements in
their bodies, such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorous, came from
ancient stars that exploded and hurled their core materials into the interstellar
void long before the solar system formed. Throughout most of human history,
people considered the universe a place apart from life on Earth. Through modern
astronomy and space technology we can now proclaim that “We have met the
universe and it is US.” So come share the excitement, the vision, and the intellec-
tual accomplishments of the astronomers and space technologists who helped
humankind reach for the stars.
—Joseph A. Angelo, Jr.
Cape Canaveral, 2005