Encyclopedia of science, technology and ethics [Vol 1 A-C]

571 Pages·2004·11.718 MB·English

by  C. Mitcham

EDITORS AND
CONSULTANTS
EDITOR IN CHIEF Eric Cohen Helen Nissenbaum
Carl Mitcham Ethicsand Public PolicyCenter Associate Professor, Cultureand Com-
munication,Computer Science, New
Professor, Liberal ArtsandInternational Stephen H. Cutcliffe
YorkUniversity
Studies, ColoradoSchool ofMines; Professor,History; Professor and Chair,
Faculty Affiliate,Center forScienceand Science, Technology, and SocietyPro- Roger A. Pielke, Jr.
Technology Policy gram,Lehigh University Professor, Environmental Studies;
Research, University ofColorado, Director, Center forScience andTech-
Paul T. Durbin
Boulder nology Policy Research,University of
Professor Emeritus,Philosophy, Univer-
Colorado, Boulder
sityofDelaware
ASSOCIATE EDITORS Michael Ruse
Deni Elliott
Larry Arnhart LucyleT. Werkmeister Professor of
Poynter Jamison ChairinMedia Ethics
Professor, Political Science,Northern Philosophy, Florida StateUniversity
andPressPolicy, University ofSouth
Illinois University
Florida Daniel Sarewitz
Deborah G. Johnson Professor,ScienceandSociety;Director,
Franz Allen Foltz
Anne Shirley Carter OlssonProfessor of Consortium for Science, Policy,and
Associate Professor, Science, Technol-
Applied Ethics andChair, Science, Outcomes, Arizona StateUniversity
ogy, andSociety, Rochester Institute of
Technology, andSociety, University of A. George Schillinger
Technology
Virginia
Professor Emeritus, Management, Poly-
Robert Frodeman
Raymond E. Spier technicUniversity, Brooklyn
Associate Professor andChair, Philo-
Emeritus Professor, Scienceand Engi- Paul B. Thompson
sophyandReligionStudies,Universityof
neering Ethics, University ofSurrey
North Texas W.K.Kellogg Professor ofAgricultural,
Foodand CommunityEthics, Michigan
SPECIAL EDITORIAL Francis Fukuyama StateUniversity
CONSULTANT Bernard L.Schwartz Professor in Inter-
Nancy Tuana
national Political Economy, Johns Hop-
Stephanie J. Bird Professor, Philosophy; Director, Rock
kins University
Editor, Scienceand Engineering Ethics EthicsInstitute, Pennsylvania State
Rachelle Hollander
University
CONSULTANTS Baltimore, Maryland
Vivian Weil
Robert H. Blank Sheldon Krimsky Professor, Ethics; Director, Centerfor
Professor, Public Policy, Brunel Professor,Urban andEnvironmental the Study ofEthicsin the Professions,
University Policyand Planning, Tufts University Illinois Institute ofTechnology
George Bugliarello Jose´ Antonio Lo´pez Cerezo Caroline Whitbeck
Professor,CivilEngineering;Chancellor, Professor,Philosophy ofScience, Uni- Elmer G.Beamer–HubertH.Schneider
Polytechnic University, Brooklyn versityofOviedo, Spain Professor inEthics, Case Western Re-
Ruth Chadwick Valerie Mike´ serve University
Professor, InstituteofEnvironment, ClinicalProfessor, Public Health, John Ziman
Philosophy, andPublic Policy, Lancaster WeillMedicalCollege ofCornell Emeritus Professor, Physics, Bristol
University, UK University University (dec.)
ii
EDITED BY
CARL MITCHAM
volume
1
a–c
GALE
Encyclopediaof Science,Technology,andEthics
CarlMitcham,EditorinChief
#2005ThomsonGale,apartofTheThomson ALLRIGHTSRESERVED Forpermissiontousematerialfromthispro-
Corporation. Nopartofthisworkcoveredbythecopyright duct,submityourrequestviaWebathttp://
hereonmaybereproducedorusedinany www.gale-edit.com/permissions,oryoumay
Thomson,StarLogoandMacmillanReference
USAaretrademarksandGaleisaregistered formorbyanymeans—graphic,electronic,or downloadourPermissionsRequestformand
trademarkusedhereinunderlicense. mechanical,includingphotocopying,record- submityourrequestbyfaxormailto:
ing,taping,Webdistribution,orinformation
Formoreinformation,contact
storageretrievalsystems—withoutthe PermissionsDepartment
MacmillanReferenceUSA writtenpermissionofthepublisher. ThomsonGale
AnimprintofThomsonGale
27500DrakeRd.
27500DrakeRd.
FarmingtonHills,MI48331-3535
Farmington,
PermissionsHotline:
Hills,MI48331-3535
248-699-8006or800-877-4253ext.8006
OryoucanvisitourInternetsiteat
Fax:[phone]or800-762-4058
http://www.gale.com
Sincethispagecannotlegiblyaccommodate
allcopyrightnotices,theacknowledgments
constituteanextensionofthecopyright
notice.
LIBRARYOFCONGRESSCATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATIONDATA
Encyclopediaofscience,technology,andethics/editedbyCarlMitcham.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN0-02-865831-0(set,hardcover:alk.paper)—ISBN0-02-865832-9(v.1)—
ISBN0-02-865833-7(v.2)—ISBN0-02-865834-5(v.3)—ISBN0-02-865901-5(v.4)
1. Science—Moralandethicalaspects—Encyclopedias.
2. Technology—Moralandethicalaspects–Encyclopedias.
I.Mitcham,Carl.Q175.35.E532005
503—dc22 005006968
Whileeveryefforthasbeenmadetoensurethereliabilityoftheinformation
presentedinthispublication,ThomsonGaledoesnotguaranteetheaccuracyof
thedatacontainedherein.ThomsonGaleacceptsnopaymentforlisting;and
inclusioninthepublicationofanyorganization,agency,institution,publication,
service,orindividualdoesnotimplyendorsementoftheeditorsorpublisher.
Errorsbroughttotheattentionofthepublisherandverifiedtothesatisfactionof
thepublisherwillbecorrectedinfutureeditions.
Thistitleisalsoavailableasane-book.
ISBN0-02-865991-0
ContactyourThomsonGalerepresentativefororderinginformation.
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
10987654321
CONTENTS
Preface............ .................. vii
Introduction . .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ..xi
IntroductoryEssays.. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .xix
TechnologiesofHumility:CitizenParticipationin
GoverningScience...SheilaJasanoff
EthicsandTechnology:AProgramforFuture
Research...DeborahG.Johnsonand
ThomasM.Powers
ResearchEthics,EngineeringEthics,andScience
andTechnologyStudies...RonaldR.Kline
Nanoscience,Nanotechnology,andEthics:Promise
andPeril...RayKurzweil
RecognizingtheStructuralFeaturesofNew
Technologies...HansLenk
TheEthicsofEvidence:ACallforSynthesis
...ValerieMike´
TowardanEthicsofScienceandTechnologyas
Knowledge...CarlMitchamandRobertFrodeman
ValuesinTechnicalDesign...HelenNissenbaum
List ofArticles . .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. lxxi
List ofContributors . ................lxxxix
Topical Outline .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .cix
ENCYCLOPEDIAOFSCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY,ANDETHICS..................1
Appendices.. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. . 2091
Index.. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. . 2297
v
EDITORIAL AND
PRODUCTION STAFF
FrankMenchaca MichelleDiMercurio
Publisher Product Dessign
He´le`nePotter LezlieLight,DanNewell,
Director, New Product Christine
Development O’Bryan,RobynYoung
Imaging
MonicaM.Hubbard
Project Editor GGSInformationServices,
XNRProductionsInc.
SaraConstantakis,LynnKoch,
Graphic Art
NicoleWatkins
Contributing Editors LoriHines
Rights Acquisition and
JoshuaKondek
Management
Editorial Technical Support
CadmusProfessional
AdamBriggle,Elizabeth
Communications
B.Inserra,ChristineKelley,Eric
Typesetter
Lowenkron,DavidSalamie,
AlanThwaits EviSeoud
Manuscript Editors Composition
JohnKrol WendyBlurton
Proofreader Manufacturing
LaurieAndriot,SusanKelsch
Indexers
vi
PREFACE
The Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics has Schillinger, and I (all colleagues at Brooklyn Polytech-
hadmultipleorigins.Itwaswhencontributinganarticle nic University) made a proposal to Macmillan Refer-
on the philosophy of technology to the pioneering first ence for an Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and
edition of the Encyclopedia of Bioethics (1978), that I Society.’’ That proposal was declined, but a version
began to dream of a more general encyclopedic intro- eventually found truncated expression in The Reader’s
duction to issues of technology and ethics. Inspired by Adviser, 14th edition, vol. 5, The Best in Science, Tech-
the perspective of scholars as diverse as Jacques Ellul nology, and Medicine (1994), co-edited with William F.
and Hans Jonas, bioethics appeared only part of a com- Williams, a colleague at Pennsylvania State University,
prehensive need to grapple intellectually with the where I served for a period during the 1990s as director
increasingly technological world in which we live. This oftheScience,Technology,andSocietyProgram.Thus
ideawaspursuedinastate-of-the-fieldchapteron‘‘Phi- when the opportunity arose to edit an encyclopedia on
science, technology, and ethics, I also wanted not to
losophyofTechnology’’inAGuidetotheCultureofSci-
limit such a reference work to ethics in any narrow
ence, Technology, and Medicine (1980) edited by one of
sense.
my mentors, Paul T. Durbin. Thus when Stephen G.
Post, the editor of the third edition of the Encyclopedia Other associations that broadened my perceptions
ofBioethics(2004),suggestedtoMacmillantheideaofa in both philosophy and STS in ways that have found
more general ‘‘Encyclopedia of Technoethics,’’ with me modest reflections here should also be mentioned. One
as potential editor, I was primed to be enthusiastic— was the collegiality of two professional associations, the
although I also argued that the field should now be Society for the Philosophy of Technology (founded
expanded to include ethics in relation to both science 1980)andtheAssociationforPracticalandProfessional
andtechnology. Ethics(founded1991),withmembersfrombothbecom-
A high-school attraction to philosophy as critical ingcontributors.ServiceasamemberoftheCommittee
reflection on how best to live had early morphed into onScientificFreedomand Responsibilityofthe Ameri-
the critical assessment of scientific technology. In con- can Association for the Advancement of Science,
temporary historical circumstances, what has a more 1994–2000, was one of the most professionally reward-
ing experiences of my career, and contributed its own
pervasive influence on the way we live than modern
perspective.Finally,thecriticalfellowshipofIvanIllich
technology? My initial scholarly publications thus
introduced me to friends and ideas with whom I might
sought to make philosophy and technology studies a
notalwaysagreethoughtheyseldomfailedtoinspire.
respected dimension of the academic world. Over the
course of my curriculum vitae this concern further
DevelopmentalProcess
broadened to include science, technology, and society
(STS) studies. Given the narrow specializations of pro- When the possibility for the present encyclopedia
fessional philosophy, STS seemed better able to func- finallyemergedintheFallof2002,myinitialdesirewas
tion as a home base for philosophy of technology. In not only to work with previous colleagues but to seek
fact, in the mid-1980s, George Bugliarello, George the collaboration of others who had become leaders in
vii
PREFACE
institutionalizingdiscussionsofscience,technology,and not let perfection become the enemy of the good, the
ethics. Obvious candidates for associate editors were project has been pursued in a belief that it might
philosopherDeborahJohnson,whoseworkoncomputer advance in its own modest way a contemporary social
and engineering ethics during the 1980s and 1990s had process in the ethical assessment of science and
helped define both fields, and Stephanie Bird and Ray- technology.
mond Spier, the editors of Science and Engineering Ethics
This encyclopedia is thus a work in progress. It
(founded1995),theleadingjournalinthisareaofinter-
aims to synthesize, but does not claim to be final or
disciplinarydiscourse. Itwasalsodesirabletomakesure
complete. Indeed, all reference works today have to
thattheprojecthadrepresentationnotjustfromthesci-
contend with a knowledge production industry that
entific and technical community (which neuroscientist
makes it difficult to secure any stable orientation.
Bird and biochemical engineer Spier clearly brought to
Despite its efforts, the project cannot hope to please all
the team) but also from different points on the ethical
scientists, engineers, and ethicists—or other scholars
and political spectrum. Fortunately, political scientist
and general readers. But the hope is to have pleased
Larry Arnhart, with whom I had recently become
sufficient numbers that those who see opportunities for
acquainted,waswillingtobringtothetableaconserva-
improvement will consider offering to make a second
tive philosophical perspective that might otherwise
edition better. Critical comments and recommenda-
have been inadequately represented, and to go beyond
thecallofeditorialdutyinmanyrespects. tionsare welcome.
ThefirsteditorialmeetingplaceinNewYorkCity
Acknowledgments
inJanuary2003,hostedbyHe´le`nePotterofMacmillan
Reference USA. This two-day workshop established Beyond those already mentioned, all Associate Editors
the general framework for the Encyclopedia of Science, and members of the Editorial Advisory Board deserve
Technology, and Ethics and became the basis for colle- specialthanksfortheircontributions.Ishouldneverthe-
gial productivity over the next two years. During the less single out Stephen H. Cutcliffe, Paul T. Durbin,
Spring and Summer 2003 we set up an Editorial Advi- Helen Nissenbaum,andNancyTuanaforextraworkin
sory Board which included Durbin, Bugliarello, and identifying authors and reviewing articles. Adam Brig-
Schillingeraswellasmorethantwentyotherrepresen- gle, as the most qualified and hard-working research
tatives of important disciplinary and regional perspec- assistant I could imagine, functioned during many
tives. Commissioned articles began to be submitted in months of the second year as an editorial assistant. A
August 2003 and continued over the next eighteen graduate seminar in STS at the Center for Science and
plusmonths. Technology Policy Research during Fall 2004 contrib-
uted critical perspectives that measurably improved the
For the first year—during a portion of which I
project. But primary credit must go to the editors and
served as a Fulbright Scholar at the University of the
contributors, many of whom worked well beyond what
Basque Country in Spain (where Nicanor Ursua was a
would have been appropriate for their modest
supportive host)—the editors worked with authors to
honoraria.
refine article definitions, learn from their contributions
about new topics that needed to be covered, and Finally, in the background, my spouse, Marylee,
thereby deepened and broadened the content of the andfamilycheeredonthe project whenever theyfound
encyclopedia. Four scholars who played especially me available—and when they found me absent, simply
important roles in these regards were Robert Frode- suffered a work schedule that for more than two years
man, Valerie Mike´, Roger Pielke Jr., and Daniel seldom let me come up for air. Colleagues in the Divi-
Sarewitz. sion of Liberal Arts and International Studies at the
ColoradoSchoolofMines similarlytolerated with good
nature a tendency to commandeer more work space
SelfAssessment
thanwasrightlymine;andtheDivisionDirector,Laura
As the first edition of a reference work, some impor- J. Pang, was generous in directing toward the project
tant topics remain missing from ESTE, because of modestbutnotinsignificantresourcesfromverylimited
problems with schedule, author availability, or simple funds. In the foreground, the daily work of managing
oversight. Indeed, because the themes of science, the encyclopedia preparation process depended on a
technology, and ethics are so broad, the Encyclopedia productionteamatMacmillantoefficientlycommission
of Science, Technology, and Ethics, despite its four-vol- articles, maintain contact with authors, coordinate
umelength,isnecessarilyselective.Yetinaneffortto reviews, copyedit manuscripts, secure illustrations,
viii EncyclopediaofScience,Technology,andEthics
PREFACE
check revisions and bibliographies, and prepare all good work, good humor, and persistence over the pre-
materialsforpublication.Inparticular,Iamfortunateto vioustwoyears.
havehadMonicaHubbard,SeniorEditorwithMacmil-
lanReferenceUSA,asaguidethroughtheprocess.This CARL MITCHAM
project would not have come to fruition without her EDITOR IN CHIEF
MAY 2005
EncyclopediaofScience,Technology,andEthics ix
INTRODUCTION
Human beings are in the midst of creating a new world dowelltoeschewanyeasycriticismornaiveenthusiasm
throughscienceandtechnology.Butwhatkindofworld in the pursuit of informed consideration. Such multi-
wecreatewillnotbedecidedbyscienceandtechnology path assessment is precisely what science, technology,
alone. It will depend even more significantly on our and ethics is all about, and the present encyclopedia
views, implicit or explicit, about the nature of the good aims to contribute in the broadest possible way to this
life—aboutgoodandbad,rightandwrong,andourabil- on-goingprocessofpromotionalandcriticalreflection.
itiestoenactidealsinthefaceoflimitedknowledgeand
To this end the Encyclopedia of Science, Technology,
temptationstoeaseorarrogance.
andEthicshasthreeobjectives:
Virtually all sciences and technologies today have
(cid:1) To provide a snapshot of emerging bodies of work
implicationsforethicsandpolitics,andethicsandpoli-
intheco-constructionofanethical,scientific,and
tics themselves increasinglyinfluence scienceandtech-
technologicalworld;
nology—not just through law, regulation, and policy
initiatives, but through public discussions stimulated by (cid:1) To design and build bridges between these not
the media, public interest organizations, and religious alwayscollaborativeefforts;
concerns. According to Alan Leshner, CEO of the (cid:1) To promote further reflection, bringing ethics to
AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,
bear on science and technology, and science and
the largest interdisciplinary scientific society in the
technologytobearonethics.
world, a new science-society relationship has emerged
in the public realm and within the scientific commun-
ity.AshewroteintheleadeditorialinScience(February Background:TheEncyclopedicIdea
11,2005):
The term ‘‘encyclopedia’’ comes from the Greek, enky-
We’ve been used to having science and technol- klios (general) + paideia (education), and thus alludes
ogy evaluated primarily on the basis of potential to the classical conception of paideia as character for-
risks and benefits. However, our recent experi-
mation that transmits a level of cultural achievement
ence suggests that a third, values-related dimen-
from one generation to the next among the educated
sionwillinfluencetheconductandsupportofsci-
few. In this classical form education came to include
enceinthefuture.
the liberal arts of logic, grammar, rhetoric, arithmetic,
Inresponse,Leshnercalledonmembersofthetech- geometry, astronomy, and music. As achievements in
noscientific community to engage others in discussing these fields accumulated and became more extensive,
themeaningandusefulnessofscience,engineering,and explicit efforts were naturally undertaken to summarize
technology. But such engagement cannot be a one-way them. Early examples of such summaries were the
street; it must also stimulate scientists and engineers in Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum and Discipli-
self-examinationsofthe socialcharacteroftheir profes- nae of Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 B.C.E.), neither
sions and the proper roles of science and technology in of which survives. The oldest extant work in this tra-
society. Additionally, the non-scientific public would dition is the Historia naturalis of Pliny the Elder (23–
xi