Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology, Fourth Edition Mehdi Khosrow-Pour Information Resources Management Association, USA Published in the United States of America by IGI Global Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2018 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Khosrow-Pour, Mehdi, 1951- editor. Title: Encyclopedia of information science and technology / Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, editor. Description: Fourth edition. | Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017000834| ISBN 9781522522553 (set : hardcover) | ISBN 9781522522560 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Information science--Encyclopedias. | Information technology--Encyclopedias. Classification: LCC Z1006 .E566 2018 | DDC 020.3--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017000834 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected]. This book is dedicated to the memory of my late father for the love and care that he always displayed for his family, and for teaching me the importance of humanitarianism. Also, to my wife, Olga, and our son, Darius, for filling my life with so much love, joy, and happiness. Editorial Advisory Board Ari-VeikkoAnttiroiko,University of Tampere, Finland S.AnnieBecker,Florida Institute of Technology, USA ShirleyM.Fedorovich,Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, USA Wen-ChenHu,University of North Dakota, USA JerzyKisielnicki,Warsaw University, Poland InLee,Western Illinois University, USA JamesA.Rodger,Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA AriSigal,Catawba Valley Community College, USA LawrenceA.Tomei,Robert Morris University, USA JohnWang,Montclair State University, USA LiudongXing,University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, USA JordiVallverdú,Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain Editorial Review Board MifrahAhmad,Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia BasharShahirAhmed,University Abdelmalek Essaadi, Morocco DanielAlemneh,University of North Texas, USA SalamOmarAli,Brighton College, UAE PaulAnkomah,North Carolina A&T University, USA AndreaAtzeni,Politecnico di Torino, Italy DaniloAvola,Sapienza University, Italy IhuomaBabatope,Delta State Univeristy Abraka/ Delta State College of Physical Education, Mosogar, Nigeria MihaelaBadea,Petroleum-Gas University of Ploiesti, Romania SurajitBag,Tega Industries South Africa Pty Ltd, South Africa KannanBalasubramanian,Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, India NeetaBaporikar,Namibia University of Science and Technology, Nigeria Nomathamsanqa(Thami)Batyashe,Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa ClementinaBruno,University of Piemonte Orientale, Italy ClaudiaCappelli,Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil CalinCiufudean,Stefan cel Mare University, Romania ÁngelaCoello,University of Vigo, Spain EduardoContreras,Autonomous University of Coahuila, Mexico CarolineCrawford,University of Houston-Clear Lake, United States PhilCrosby,Curtin University, Australia NicolettaDessì,Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Italy NicDunham,Unitec Institute of Technology, New Zealand ChristopheDuret,Université de Sherbrooke, Canada AlexanderFridman,Russian Academy of Sciences, IIMM KSC RAS, Russia DraženaGašpar,University of Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina CiaraHeavin,University College Cork, Ireland MasoudHemmatpour,Politecnico di Torino, Italy AdamkoloMohammedIbrahim,University of Maiduguri, Nigeria ShigeruIkuta,Otsuma Women’s University, Japan GiuseppeIurato,University of Palermo, Italy GeorgeJamil,Informações em Rede, Brazil JurgenJanssens,TETRADE Consulting, Belgium MichaelJosefowicz,Nemetics Institute Kolkata, USA PrateekKalia,I.K Gujral Punjab Technical University, India YefimKatz,Chestnut Hill College, USA NadimAkhtarKhan,University of Kashmir, India MariaKoleva,Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria RaghuramanKoteeswaran,SASTRA University, India PriyaKrishnamoorthy,SASTRA University, India SeferKurnaz,Istanbul Esenyurt University, Turkey TrentLarson,North Carolina A&T University, USA, ElviraLocuratolo,ISTI, Italy RonaldLofaro,Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, USA GeethaMariappan,Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology, India M.K.Marichelvam,Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, India GilbertoMarzano,Rezekne University of Applied Sciences, Latvia LincyMathews,M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, India KarimMezghani,Al Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Tunisia EmiliaMikolajewska,Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Poland DariuszMikolajewski,Kazimierz Wielki University, Poland VardanMkrttchian,HHH University, Australia JessinaMuthee,Kenyatta University, Kenya AntonioOsorio,University of Minho, Portugal LeoPaschoal,Federal University of Cruz Alta, Brazil PrantoshPaul,Raiganj University, India DaniloPiaggesi,FRAmericas, International Knowledge Economy Program (IKEP), USA DianaPresada,Petroleum-Gas University of Ploiesti, Romania MohdRahman,Aligarh Muslim University, India N.RaghavendraRao,FINAIT Consultancy Services, India JoséRascão,Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal, Portugal FilipaRibeiro,University of Porto, Portugal GerasimosRigatos,Industrial Systems Institute, Greece JohnRobinson,Bishop Heber College, India JuanRodriguez,UNICEN CONICET, Argentina IsabelRomero,University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain RoyaRouzbehani,University of Tehran, Iran JohnC.Sandvig,Western Washington University, USA FrancescaSgobbi,University of Brescia, Italy HumaShah,Coventry University, UK DollySharma,PEC University of Technology, India TeayShawyun,King Saud University, Saudi Arabia ZeljkoStojanov,University of Novi Sad, Serbia ApostolosSyropoulos,Greek Molecular Computing Group, Greece SafiyeTurgay,Sakarya University, Turkey ImmanuelUmukoro,Lagos Business School, Pan Atlantic University, Nigeria TugbaUcmaUysal,Mugla Sitki Koçman University, Turkey JTVelikovsky,University of Newcastle, Australia LauraVettraino,Learning Community, Italy RevathiViswanathan,B.S. Abdur Rahman University, India YeWang,Zhejiang Gongshang University, China TingshaoZhu,Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China List of Contributors A, Vadivel /National Institute of Technology Trichy, India..............................................................212 Abad, Lalaine P./Department of Education, Philippines..............................................................2466 Abdelhafez, Hoda Ahmed/Suez Canal University, Egypt...............................................................406 Abdou, Tamer /Suez Canal University, Egypt...............................................................................7399 Abdrakhmanova, Gulnara /National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russia.........................................................................................................................................4704 Aboud, Sattar J./University of Bedfordshire, UK..........................................................................4898 Adhikari, Arnab /Indian Institute of Management Ranchi, India.................................................7234 Adibfar, Alireza /University of Florida, USA..................................................................................539 Agrawal, Shaila /Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, India............................4872 Agrey, Renae /The University of Queensland, Australia...............................................................5433 Aguilar-Moreno, Estefanía /Universitat Jaume I of Castellón, Spain..........................................3473 Agwae, Uruemu /Carleton University, Canada.............................................................................1684 Ahmad, Mifrah /Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia......................................................3337 Ahmed, Bashar Shahir/University Abdelmalek Essaadi (LEROSA Laborator), Morocco..........1616 Ahmed, Rukhsana /University of Ottawa, Canada.......................................................................6083 Akahane-Yamada, Reiko /Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International (ATR), Japan..............................................................................................................................3850 Akalan, Nazif Ekin/Istanbul University, Turkey.............................................................................298 Akhtar, Saliha /Seton Hall University, USA..................................................................................7181 Akolkar, Rajshree Tushar/Zeal College of Engineering and Research, India.............................4099 Akyuz, Goknur Arzu/University of Turkish Aeronautical Association, Turkey...........................5285 Alba-Elías, Fernando /Universidad de La Rioja, Spain................................................................1934 Alberg, Dima /Shamoon College of Engineering (SCE), Israel......................................................364 Alemneh, Daniel G./University of North Texas, USA....................................................................6748 Alharbi, Ali H./Qassim University, Saudi Arabia................................................................1249,3448 Ali, Salam Omar/Brighton Collage Al Ain, UAE..........................................................................7647 Al-Khalifa, Hend S./King Saud University, Saudi Arabia............................................................4652 Al-Marzouqi, Mohamed /UAE University, UAE..........................................................................3043 Almeida, Fernando /Polytechnic Institute of Gaya, Portugal.........................................................800 Almeida, Gustavo de Oliveira/Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil..............754 Almunawar, Hasan Jawwad/P. T. Tegar Kupas Mediatama, Indonesia......................................1101 Almunawar, Mohammad Nabil/Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei...................1101,5908,7369 Alnowibet, Khalid /King Saud University, Saudi Arabia..............................................................1570 Al-Rousan, Thamer /Isra University, Pakistan.............................................................................7549 Al-Salman, Abdulmalik /King Saud University, Saudi Arabia.....................................................4652 Altun, Arif /Hacettepe University, Turkey.....................................................................................1441 Alves, Domingos /University of São Paulo, Brazil.........................................................................3782 Amoros, Francisco /Miguel Hernandez University, Spain............................................................6894 Amroush, Fadi /Universidad de Salamanca, Spain.......................................................................1616 Amuda, Caleb Okoro/University of Ibadan, Nigeria....................................................................2303 Anderson, Billie /Ferris State University, USA.............................................................................7140 Andrade, Maria Teresa/University of Porto, Portugal.................................................................6031 Andreev, Rumen D./Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Information and Communication Technologies, Bulgaria....................................................................................2188 Ankomah, Paul /North Carolina A&T State University, USA.......................................................4113 Anshari, Muhammad /Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei...........................................5908,7369 Anton, Jose Luis Monroy/La Ribera University Hospital, Spain.................................................5787 Antonino, Ardilio /Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering, Germany............................4560 Aragaki, Madoka /Business Breakthrough University, Japan......................................................4962 Arana, Loredana /University of Phoenix, USA.............................................................................5650 Araujo, Andre /Texas A&M University, USA..................................................................................720 Arias, Vladimir Santiago/Texas Tech University, USA.................................................................7069 Arner, Tracy /Kent State University, USA.....................................................................................6388 Arora, Richa /Regenesys Institute of Management, India.............................................................2882 Arshad, Noreen Izza/Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia...............................................3337 Arslan, Yunus Ziya/Istanbul Univesity, Turkey...............................................................298,492,7470 Artizzu, Valentino /University of Cagliari, Italy...........................................................................3273 Arumugam, Sivasankar /Sri Venkateswara College of Education, India....................................2599 Askarany, Davood /University of Auckland, New Zealand...........................................................2166 Atzeni, Andrea /Politecnico di Torino, Italy..................................................................................5004 Atzori, Barbara /University of Florence, Italy..............................................................................5955 Aubin, Verónica Inés/Universidad Nacional de La Matanza, Argentina......................................4643 Averweg, Udo Richard/eThekwini Municipality, South Africa.....................................................7106 Ávila, Liliana /University of Aveiro, Portugal..................................................................................888 Avola, Danilo /University of Udine, Italy.......................................................................................6195 Aymerich-Franch, Laura /CNRS-AIST JRL (Joint Robotics Laboratory), AIST, Japan.............4234 Azevedo, Ana /Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Portugal.................................................................1907 Aziz, Abdul /Usman Institute of Technology, Pakistan....................................................................166 Babatope, Ihuoma Sandra/Delta State College of Physical Education, Nigeria.........................5252 Badea, Mihaela /Petroleum-Gas University of Ploiesti, Romania.................................................3945 Baeva, Liudmila Vladimirovna/Astrakhan State University, Russia...........................................4189 Bag, Surajit /Tega Industries South Africa Pty Ltd., South Africa................................................3086 Bailetti, Tony /Carleton University, Canada.................................................................................1684 Balamurugan B/VIT University, India..........................................................................................1075 Balasubramanian, Kannan /Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, India...................................4975 Balasubramanian, Senthilarasu /National Institute of Technology, India.......................................49 Baldini, Gianmarco /European Commission – Joint Research Centre, Italy................................6136 Ballesteros, Carlos /Universidad Pontificia Comillas, Spain........................................................1638 Banaji, Shakuntala /LSE, UK.......................................................................................................3667 Banihashemi, Saeed /University of Technology Sydney, Australia.................................................539 Baporikar, Neeta /Namibia University of Science and Technology, Namibia & University of Pune, India.................................................................................................................................2989 Barlow, Michael /University of New South Wales, Australia..........................................................156 Barrett, Diane /Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, USA.....................................................1356 Bartens, Yannick /University of Hamburg, Germany.....................................................................601 Basham, Randy /University of Texas at Arlington, USA...............................................................1407 Basu, Rounaq /Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India......................................................7843 Bates, Paul /University of Southern Queensland, Australia..........................................................7869 Battistella, Gaetano /ISPRA, Italy.................................................................................................3156 Batyashe, Thami /Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa...................................810 Bayındır, Levent /Ataturk University, Turkey................................................................................6286 Bayousuf, Abeer /King Saud University, Saudi Arabia.................................................................4652 Bedesem, Pena L./Kent State University, USA..............................................................................6388 Belalem, Ghalem /University of Es Senia Oran1, Algeria............................................................1116 Belikov, Olga /Brigham Young University, USA............................................................................6779 Bellar, Wendi R./Texas A&M University, USA..............................................................................6161 Ben Hamida, Ahmed /University of Sfax, Tunisia..........................................................................106 Ben Maati, Mohammed /University Abdelmalek Essaadi, Morocco............................................1616 Ben-Abdallah, Hanêne /King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia.................................................765 Benazeer, Shahzada /University of Antwerp, Belgium..................................................................5317 Bennett, Sue /University of Wollongong, Australia.......................................................................2512 Bergenti, Federico /Università degli Studi di Parma, Italy...........................................................6950 Bessette, Dustin /National Graduate School of Quality Management, USA.................................7898 Betts, Lucy R./Nottingham Trent University, UK.................................................................4168,4245 Bhanot, Neeraj /Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, India...............587 Bharwani, Sonia /Indian School of Management and Entrepreneurship, India............................1529 Bhattacharya, Simanti /University of Kalyani, India.....................................................................466 Bhuimali, A. /Raiganj University, India...............................................................................4448,7201 Bhutkar, Ganesh D./Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, India................................................4099 Biancofiore, Giovanni /giovannibiancofiore.com, Italy................................................................7671 Bielenia-Grajewska, Magdalena /University of Gdansk, Poland........................................2580,5085 Bihl, Trevor J./Air Force Institute of Technology, USA.................................................................6642 Bisht, Pankaja /B. T. Kumaon Institute of Technology, India........................................................6253 Bisui, Sandip /Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur, India................................................5901 Blanco, Beatriz /University of Cantabria, Spain...........................................................................3870 Boccasini, Adele /Lega del Filo d’Oro – Termini Imerese, Italy.....................................................287 Bocci, Elena /Sapienza University of Rome, Italy......................................4038,4064,4404,7014,7044 Bodea, Constanţa-Nicoleta /Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Romania............5158,6579 Boff, Felipe /Lutheran University of Brazil (ULBRA), Brazil........................................................4797 Bonaiuti, Federica /ISPRA, Italy...................................................................................................3156 Bond, Emma /University Campus Suffolk, UK..............................................................................7312 Bose, Ahana /Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, India.........................................................61 Bouaziz, Rafik /University of Sfax, Tunisia..........................................................................2043,2054 Bouck, Emily C./Michigan State University, USA...........................................................................266 Boudriga, Noureddine /University of Carthage, Tunisia..............................................................4849 Boukadi, Khouloud /University of Sfax, Tunisia.............................................................................765