Encyclopedia of information science and technology

3256 Pages·2005·21.801 MB·English

by  Mehdi Khosrow-Pour

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Acquisitions Editor: Mehdi Khosrow-Pour
Asst. Acquisitions Editor: Renée Davies
Senior Managing Editor: Jan Travers
Managing Editor: Amanda Appicello
Development Editor: Michele Rossi
Copy Editors: Amanda Appicello, Elizabeth Arneson, Maria Boyer, Alana Bubnis, Jane Conley, Renée Davies,
Lori Eby, Bernard J. Kieklak, Jr., Shanelle Ramelb, Sue VanderHook and Ingrid Widitz
Typesetters: Sara Reed and Rachel Shepherd
Support Staff: Corrina Chandler, Amanda Phillips, Michelle Potter, Marko Primorac, Jennifer Wetzel, Tara White,
Chris Yura and Larissa Zearfoss
Cover Design: Lisa Tosheff
Printed at: Yurchak Printing Inc.
Published in the United States of America by
Idea Group Reference (an imprint of Idea Group Inc.)
701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Suite 200
Hershey PA 17033
Tel: [phone]
Fax: [phone]
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: http://www.idea-group-ref.com
and in the United Kingdom by
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Copyright © 2005 by Idea Group Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Encyclopedia of information science and technology / Mehdi Khosrow-Pour, editor.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-59140-553-X — ISBN 1-59140-794-X (ebook)
1. Information science—Encyclopedias. 2. Information technology—Encyclopedias. I. Khosrowpour, Mehdi, 1951-
Z1006.E566 2005
004'.03—dc22
2004025544
British Cataloguing in Publication Data
A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors,
but not necessarily of the publisher.
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Linda Knight, DePaul University, USA
Shirley Fedorovich, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, USA
James Rodger, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA
Eileen Trauth, Penn State University, USA
Annie Becker, Florida Institute of Technology, USA
France Belanger, Virginia Tech, USA
Karen Nantz, Eastern Illinois University, USA
Janis Gogan, Bentley College, USA
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A. Vadivel / Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
A.C. Gómez Lora / Universidad de Málaga, Spain
A.K. Majumdar / Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
Abdulbaset Gaddah / Carleton University, Canada
Abdulwahed Mohammed Khalfan / Public Authority Applied Education & Training, Kuwait
Aberdeen Leila Borders / University of New Orleans, USA
Ada Scupola / Roskilde University, Denmark
Adolfo Sánchez de Miguel / Cronos Ibérica, S.A., Spain
Agustinus Borgy Waluyo / Monash University, Australia
Ai Cheo Yeo / Monash University, Australia
Airi Salminen / University of Jyväskylä, Finland
Ajantha Dahanayake / Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
Ala Abu-Samaha / Amman University, Jordan
Albert L. Ingram / Kent State University, USA
Alex A. Freitas / University of Kent, UK
Alexa Heucke / Munich University of Applied Sciences, Germany
Alexander Markhasin / Siberian Telecommunications University, Russia
Alexandra Galatescu / National Institute for R & D in Informatics, Romania
Alexandros Nanopoulos / Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Ali Arya / Simon Fraser University, Canada
Ali Metwalli / Western Michigan University, USA
Alina Lazar / Youngstown State University, USA
Amaryllis Raouzaiou / National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Amita Goyal Chin / Viginia Commonwealth University, USA
Amr El Abbadi / University of California, Santa Barbara, USA
Amy B. Woszczynski / Kennesaw State University, USA
Ana C. Andrés del Valle / VICOMTech Research Center, Spain
Ana Funes / Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Argentina
Ana Tereza Vasconcelos / LNCC, Brazil
Anabela Sarmento / ISCAP/IPP, Portugal and University of Minho, Portugal
Anand Iyer / PRTM, UK
Anatália Saraiva Martins Ramos / Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
Anders Avdic / Örebro University, Sweden
André de Carvalho / USP São Carlos, Brazil
Andrea De Lucia / University of Salerno, Italy
Andreas L. Opdahl / University of Bergen, Norway
Andreas Mitrakas / Ubizen, Belgium
Andreas Rülke / PRTM, UK
Andrés Coratella / Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
Andrew Borchers / Kettering University, USA
Andrew Laghos / City University, London, UK
Andrew S. Targowski / Western Michigan University, USA
Andrew Urbaczewski / University of Michigan, USA
Andrey Naumenko / Triune Continuum Enterprise, Switzerland
Andries Burger / University of the Free State, South Africa
Anesh Maniraj Singh / University of Kwazulu Natal, South Africa
Anet Potgieter / University of Cape Town, South Africa
Angel D. Sappa / Computer Vision Center, Spain
Ann Frances Cameron / Queens University, Canada
Anna Malina / e-Society Research, UK
Anne Honkaranta / University of Jyväskyä, Finland
Anthony Scime / State University of New York College at Brockport, USA
Antonio Díaz-Andrade / Escuela de Administración de Negocios para Graduados – ESAN, Peru
Antonio P. Braga / UFMG, Brazil
Antonios Danalis / University of Delaware, USA
Ardis Hanson / University of South Florida, USA
Aristides Dasso / Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Argentina
Ari-Veikko Anttiroiko / University of Tampere, Finland
Arlyn J. Melcher / Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, USA
Arnor Solberg / SINTEF ICT, Norway
Arthur R. Edwards / Erasmus University, The Netherlands
Arthur Tatnall / Victoria University, Australia
Arun Rai / Georgia State University, USA
Aryya Gangopadhyay / University of Maryland Baltimore County, USA
Athanasios Drosopoulos / National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Athanasis Karoulis / Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Athena Vakali / Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Audun Jensvoll / EDB Telesciences, Norway
Awie Leonard / University of Pretoria, South Africa
Axel Schmetzke / University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, USA
Aybüke Aurum / University of New South Wales, Australia
Babita Gupta / California State University Monteray Bay, USA
Badrul M. Sarwar / University of Minnesota, USA
Bala Srinivasan / Monash University, Australia
Beatriz de la Iglesia / University of East Anglia, UK
Ben Martz / University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, USA
Bernard Blandin / CESI SAS, France
Bernard C.Y. Tan / National University of Singapore, Singapore
Beverly Shattuck / Hinks and Elaine Shimberg Health Sciences Center Library, USA
Bill Davey / RMIT University, Australia
Bill Karakostas / City University, London, UK
Bin Zhang / Louisiana State University, USA
Birgit Jaeger / Roskilde University, Denmark
Bishwajit Choudhary / Information Resources Management Association, USA
Bob Justis / Louisianna State University, USA
Bob Ritchie / University of Central Lancashire, UK
Bosede Aworuwa / Texas A&M University- Texarkana, USA
Brian Dobing / University of Lethbridge, Canada
Bruce Lubotsky Levin / University of South Florida, USA
Bruce Rollier / University of Baltimore, USA
Bruce Vanstone / Bond University, Australia
Burak Ozer / Verificon Corp., USA
C.L. Vidal-Rodeiro / Norman J. Arnold School of Public Health, USA
C. Makatsoris / Orion Logic Ltd., UK
Carla Wilkin / The University of Melbourne, Australia
Caroline Howard / Touro International University, USA
Catherine M. Beise / Salisbury University, USA
Catherine M. Ridings / Lehigh University, USA
Cathy Cavanaugh / University of North Florida, USA
Celeste See-pui NG / Yuan Ze University, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Cesar Alexandre de Souza / University São Judas Tadeu, Brazil
Cesare Alippi / Politecnico Di Milano, Italy
Chad Lin / Edith Cowan University, Australia
Chalermsak Lertwongsatien / Ministry of Finance, Thailand
Chanda Elbert / Texas A&M University, USA
Chandra S. Amaravadi / Western Illinois University, USA
Charlene A. Dykman / University of St. Thomas, USA
Charles C. Hinnant / The University of Georgia, USA
Charles H. Mawhinney / Metropolitan State College of Denver, USA
Charles Møller / Aarhus School of Business, Denmark
Charles R. Graham / Brigham Young University, USA
Chen Way Siew / National University of Singapore, Singapore
Chi Kin Chan / The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Chin-Chen Chang / National Chung Hsing University, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Chong W. Kim / Marshall University, USA
Chris Chatwin / University of Sussex, UK
Chris Coulston / Penn State Erie, USA
Chris Kimble / University of York, UK
Christine Ashley / University of Minnesota, USA
Christoph Richter / University of Hannover, Germany
Christophe Nicolle / Université de Bourgogne, France
Christopher Klassen / University of Dallas, USA
Chung Hsun Hsieh / Chaoyang University of Technology, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Chung S. Kim / Southwest Missouri State University, USA
Chung-Shing Lee / Pacific Lutheran University, USA
Chung-wei Lee / Auburn University, USA
Clare Brindley / Manchester Metropolitan University, UK
Clare M. Pollock / Curtin University of Technology, Australia
Clarence N.W. Tan / Bond University, Australia
Clarence Tan / Bond University, Australia
Claudia Cevenini / University of Bologna, Italy
Claudia Pereira / Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina
Clint A. Bowers / University of Central Florida, USA
Colin C. Venters / University of Manchester, UK
Concetta M. Stewart / Temple University, USA
Conrad Shayo / California State University, San Bernardino, USA
Coral Calero / University of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
Craig Van Slyke / University of Central Florida, USA
Cristiano Castelfranchi / Institute for Cognitive Sciences and Technology, National Research Council of Italy, Italy
Cristóbal Pareja-Flores / Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain
Cynthia LeRouge / Saint Louis University, USA
Cynthia Ruppel / The University of Alabama in Huntsville, USA
D. Bruce Sun / California State University at Long Beach, USA
D. Chakraborty / Tohoku University, Japan
D. Theotokis / University of Peloponnese, Greece
D.I. Martakos / National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
D.M. Gorman / Texas A&M University, USA
D. Sandy Staples / Queens University, Canada
D.S. Stamoulis / National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
Dale H. Shao / Marshall University, USA
Damianos Chatziantoniou / Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece
Dan S. Petty / North Texas Commission, USA
Dane Peterson / Southwest Missouri State University, USA
Daniel Brandon, Jr. / Christian Brothers University, USA
Daniel J. Buehrer / National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Daniel J. Power / University of Northern Iowa and DSSResources.com, USA
Daniel Riesco / Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Argentina
Daniel Romero / Universidad Nacional de Rio Cuarto, Argentina
Daniel Schwabe / Departamento de Informática, PUC-Rio, RJ, Brazil
Danny A. Samson / University of Melbourne, Australia
Darleen M. DeRosa / Right Management Consultants, USA
Darren Dalcher / Middlesex University, UK
David A. Banks / University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
David Bryde / Liverpool John Moore University, UK
David Gefen / Drexel University, USA
David J. Pauleen / Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
David Knight / Brunel University, UK
David Petie / Petie Ltd, UK
David Robinson / St. Cloud State University, USA
David Ruppel / The University of Toledo, USA
David Sammon / University College Cork, Ireland
David Taniar / Monash University, Australia
Davood Askarany / University of South Australia, Australia
Deborah Bunker / University of New South Wales, Australia
Deborah Bursa / Georgia Institute of Technology, USA
Dedric A. Carter / Nova Southeastern University, USA
Denis Trcek / University of Primorska, Koper, Slovenia
Denise Fukumi Tsunoda / CEFET-PR, Brazil
Denise Johnson McManus / Wake Forest University, USA
Dennis E. Tucker / Yaasuo Consulting Company, USA
Dennis Guster / St. Cloud State University, USA
Derrie Perez / University of South Florida, USA
Detmar Straub / Georgia State University, USA
Diane H. Sonnenwald / Goteborg University, Sweden
Dianne Willis / Leeds Metropolitan University, UK
Dimitrios Katsaros / Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Dimitris Plexousakis / Institute of Computer Science, FORTH, Greece
Dirk Trossen / Nokia Research Center, USA
Dirk Vriens / Radbound University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Dirk Werth / German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, Germany
Divyakant Agrawal / University of California, Santa Barbara, USA
Dohoon Kim / Kyung Hee University, Korea
Dolores Cuadra / Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Donald A. Hantula / Temple University, USA
Donald R. Morris-Jones / SRA, USA
Donaldo de Souza Dias / Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Donna Ure / Brigham Young University, USA
Dorothy G. Dologite / Baruch College, USA
E. Kapetanios / Semantic Technologies, Switzerland
E. Vázquez-Fernández / Public Health Department of Galicia, Spain
E.V. Krishnamurthy / Australian National University, Australia
Earl Woodruff / OISE - University of Toronto, Canada
Eberhard Stickel / Hochschule der Sparkassen – Finanzgruppe and University of Applied Sciences-Bonn GmbH,
Germany
Edilberto Casado / Gerens Escuela de Gestion y Economia, Peru
Edilberto Magalhães Silva / Brazilian Public News Agency, Brazil
Edilson Ferneda / Catholic University of Brasília, Brazil
Eduardo Rodriguez / Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
Eduardo Salas / University of Central Florida, USA
Edward J. Szewczak / Canisius College, USA
Edward Szczerbicki / The University of Newcastle, Australia
Eileen M. Trauth / The Pennsylvania State University, USA
Eitel J.M. Lauría / Marist College, USA
Elaheh Pourabbas / National Research Council, Rome, Italy
Elaine R. Winston / Hofstra University, USA
Elayne Coakes / University of Westminster, UK
Elena Castro / Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Elena Karahanna / University of Georgia, USA
Elizabeth Furtado / Universidade de Fortaleza, Brazil
Elizabeth Smythe / Concordia University College of Alberta, Canada
El-Sayed Abou-Zeid / Concordia University, Canada
Emma Tonkin / University of Karlsruhe, Germany
Emmanuelle Vaast / Long Island University, USA
Eric Pardede / La Trobe Univresity, Australia
Erick Slazinski / Purdue University, USA
Erik Buelen / Tilburg University, The Netherlands
Erik Molenaar / Technical University of Aachen, Germany
Erwin Van den Enden / Institute of Tropical Medicine, Belgium
Eshaa M. Alkhalifa / University of Bahrain, Bahrain
Esperanza Marcos Martínez / Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Spain
Ester Zumpano / DEIS Università della Calabria, Italy
Fabio A. Schreiber / Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Fadi P. Deek / New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA
Fahui Wang / Northern Illinois University, USA
Fang Zhao / RMIT University, Australia
Farhad Daneshgar / University of New South Wales, Australia
Fay Cobb Payton / North Carolina State University, USA
Fazli Erbas / University of Hanover, Germany
Felix B. Tan / Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
Fergal Carton / University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Fernando José Barbin Laurindo / University of São Paulo, Brazil
Floriana Grasso / Liverpool University, UK
Folker den Braber / SINTEF ICT, Norway
France Bélanger / Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA
Francisco Cervantes / Mexico Autonomous Institute of Technology (UNAM), Mexico
Francisco-Javier Díaz-Pernas / University of Valladolid, Spain
Françoise Preteux / Institut National des Télécommunications, France
Frank E. Ritter / The Pennsylvania State University, USA
Fred L. Kitchens / Ball State University, USA
Fred Niederman / Saint Louis University, USA
Frederic Adam / University College Cork, Ireland
Frederick Ericsson / Örebro University, Sweden
Fredrik Vraalsen / SINTEF ICT, Norway
Freek Ebeling / Telematica Instituut, The Netherlands
G. Chakraborty / Iwate Prefectural University, Japan
G. Eleftherakis / City College, Greece
G. Peter Zhang / Georgia State University, USA
Gabor Hosszu / Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary
Gaelle Picherit-Duthler / University of North Carolina Charlotte, USA
Galen Sevcik / Georgia State University, USA
Garp Choong Kim / Inha University, Korea
Gary F. Kohut / University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
Gee-Woo (Gilbert) Bock / National University of Singapore, Singapore
Georg Disterer / University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Hanover/Germany
Georg Peters / Munich University of Applied Sciences, Germany
George Doukidis / Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece
George M. Giaglis / Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece
George Pallis / Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Geraldine Clarebout / University of Leuven, Belgium
Gerardo Canfora / University of Sannio, Italy
German Montejano / Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Argentina
Giancarlo Fortino / Università della Calabria, Italy
Gillian H. Wright / Manchester Metropolitan University Business School, UK
Gina Green / Baylor University, USA
Giorgos Zacharia / MIT, USA
Giovanni Vanini / Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Giuseppi Pozzi / Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Glenn Lowry / United Arab Emirates University, UAE
Glenn Russell / Monash University, Australia
Goran D. Putnik / University of Minho, Portugal
Göran Pulkkis / Arcada Polytechnic, Helsinki, Finland
Gordana Jovanovic-Dolecek / National Institute of Astrophysics Optics and Electronics, INAOE, Mexico
Graeme Richards / University of East Anglia, UK
Graham Pervan / Curtin University of Technology, Australia
Greg Chiasson / PRTM, UK
Grigoris Antoniou / Institute of Computer Science, FORTH, Greece
Guadalupe Salazar-Zárate / Technical University of Catalonia, Spain
Guisseppi Forgionne / University of Maryland Baltimore County, USA
Gustavo Rossi / UNLP, La Plata, Argentina
Ha Sung Hwang / Temple University, USA
Hamada H. Ghenniwa / University of Western Ontario, Canada
Hanni Muukkonen / University of Helsinki, Finland
Hanns-Christian Hanebeck / GlobeRanger Corporation and Univerity of Dallas, USA
Hannu Salmela / Institute of Information Systems Science, Finland
Hao Lou / Ohio University, USA
Hareton Leung / Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Harold Webb / The University of Tampa, USA
Hassan A. Karimi / University of Pittsburgh, USA
Haydee M. Cuevas / University of Central Florida, USA
Hector Perez-Meana / National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico, Mexico
Heidrun Allert / University of Hannover, Germany
Heitor S. Lopes / CEFET-PR, Brazil
Helen Mitchell / Unitec, Auckland, New Zealand
Helen Thompson / University of Ballarat, Australia
Hendrik Decker / Instituto Tecnológico de Informática, Spain
Henry Aigbedo / Oakland University, Michigan, USA
Herbert J. Mattord / Kennesaw State University, USA
Herbert Kotzab / Copenhagen Business School, Denmark
Herberto Ochoa-Morales / University of New Mexico, USA