Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences, Four-Volume Set, Volume 1-4

2093 Pages·2004·43.83 MB·English

by  Julian Evans

E
NCYCLOPEDIA OF
FOREST
SCIENCES
E
NCYCLOPEDIA OF
FOREST
SCIENCES
Editor-in-Chief
JEFFERY BURLEY
Editors
JULIAN EVANS
JOHN A YOUNGQUIST
Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford
Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo
Elsevier Ltd., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK
Elsevier Inc., 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA
& 2004 Elsevier Ltd.
The following articles are US Government works in the public domain and not subject to copyright:
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND ANALYSIS/Biometric Research; Statistical Methods (Mathematics and
Computers). INVENTORY/Modeling. PULPING/Fiber Resources; New Technology in Pulping and Bleaching.
WOOD FORMATION AND PROPERTIES/Wood Quality.
ENTOMOLOGY/Defoliators, Crown Copyright 2004
HEALTH AND PROTECTION/Integrated Pest Management Practices, Crown Copyright 2004
MENSURATION/Growth and Yield, Crown Copyright 2004
PLANTATIONSILVICULTURE/Multiple-useSilvicultureinTemperatePlantationForestry,CrownCopyright2004
PLANTATION SILVICULTURE/Tending, Crown Copyright 2004
SILVICULTURE/Coppice Silviculture Practiced in Temperate Regions, Crown Copyright 2004
SOCIALANDCOLLABORATIVEFORESTRY/CanadianModelForestExperience,CanadianCrownCopyright
2004
AFFORESTATION/SpeciesChoice,&CommonwealthScientificandInternationalResearchOrganization(CSIRO)
TREE PHYSIOLOGY/Nutritional Physiology of Trees, & Commonwealth Scientific and International Research
Organization (CSIRO)
TREE PHYSIOLOGY/Physiology and Silviculture, & Commonwealth Scientific and International Research
Organization (CSIRO)
ThearticleSUSTAINABLEFORESTMANAGEMENT/CausesofDeforestationandForestFragmentationisadapted
withpermission of Academic Pressfrom Ghazoul JandEvansJ (2001) Deforestationandlandclearing. In:
Levin SA (Ed.) Encyclopedia ofBiodiversityISBN: 0-12-226865-2
SOLIDWOODPRODUCTS/Construction; Logs, Poles, Piles,Sleepers (Crossties) andGluedStructuralMembers
areadaptedwithpermissionfromtheForestProductsLaboratory(1999).WoodHandbook–Woodasanengineering
material. GeneralTechnicalReport FPL-GTR-113. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture,ForestService
TROPICAL ECOSYSTEMS/MangrovesisadaptedwithpermissionofElsevierLtd. from Spalding MD (2001)
Mangroves.In:SteeleJH,TurekianKKandThorpeSA(Eds).EncyclopediaofOceanSciences.ISBN:0-12-227430-X
PLANTATION SILVICULTURE/Forest Plantations is adapted with permission of Eolss Publishers from
Evans (2003) Forest Plantations, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems. http://www.eolss.net
PACKAGING, RECYCLING AND PRINTING/Paper Recycling Science and Technology is adapted with
permission of Elsevier Ltd. from Doshi MR and Dyer JM (2001) Paper recycling and recycled materials. In:
BuschowKHJ,CahnRW,FlemmingsMC,IlschnerB,KramerEJandMahajanS(Eds)EncyclopediaofMaterials
Science and Technology. ISBN: 0-08-043152-6
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
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First edition 2004
Library of Congress Control Number: 2003113256
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 0-12-145160-7 (set)
This book is printed on acid-free paper
Printed in Spain
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Jeffery Burley
University ofOxford
Oxford
UK
EDITORS
Julian Evans
Imperial College London
Ascot, UK
John AYoungquist
Forest Products Consultant
Verona,WI, USA
SaidAbuBakr JabouryGhazoul
Western MichiganUniversity Imperial College London
Kalamazoo,MI, USA Ascot, UK
LABruijnzeel Stephen Harris
VrijeUniversiteit University ofOxford
HV Amsterdam,TheNetherlands Oxford, UK
RowlandBurdon John LInnes
NewZealandForest ResearchInstitute University ofBritish Columbia
Rotorua,NewZealand Vancouver,BC,Canada
JamesBarrackCarle Madhav Karki
Forest ResourcesDevelopmentService Medical and AromaticPlants Programin Asia(MAPPA)
Rome,Italy New Delhi,India
Dennis Dykstra Simon R Leather
BlueOxForestry Imperial College London
Portland,OR, USA Ascot, UK
vi EDITORIALADVISORYBOARD
HGydeLund Fergus LSinclair
Forest InformationServices University ofWales Bangor
Gainesville,VA,USA Gwynedd, UK
Lawrence AMorris
Universityof Georgia Harold Steen
Athens,GA,USA NC, USA
JohnParrotta
USDA ForestService Research K FreerkWiersum
PR,USA Wageningen University
Wageningen,The Netherlands
DavidRook
GallowHill, UK
Michael JWingfield
PeterSSavill University ofPretoria
Universityof Oxford Pretoria, Republic of SouthAfrica
Oxford,UK
Stephen RJSheppard Robert Youngs
TheUniversity ofBritish Columbia Virginia PolytechnicInstituteand StateUniversity
Vancouver,BC,Canada Blacksburg, VA,USA
FOREWORD
T his is a most timely publication because of the vast amount of new information on forest sciences that
hasbeenproducedoverthelastfewyearsandbecauseofthegrowingrealizationofthevitalimportance
offoreststotheworld.Fortunatelyforourfuture,theworldisbeginningtorealizethatforestsarebothvital
for our survival and that they offer many benefits. These benefits vary from the more obvious ones such as
timber and fibers for paper pulp, to the environmental aspects such as the sequestration of carbon, the
protection ofwatershedsandthe prevention offlooding inmany areas. Also there is agrowingemphasis on
the production of non-timber forest products because of their role in sustainable management of forests.
Sinceforestsaresocrucialtoourfuturetheirsustainablemanagementisessentialandthisrequiresagreat
amount of expertise and information. As I look at the list of the authors and the advisory board of this
Encyclopedia, it reads like a who’s who of forest science. These experts have put together a collection of
informationandup-to-datecontributionsthatwillbeaninvaluableresourceforanyoneinvolvedwithforests
in any way. I am sure that students at all levels, their teachers and lecturers, professional researchers, policy
makers, and even the interested layman or amateur forester will find these volumes of great use.
AsIlookthroughthecoverageIfinditmostcomprehensiveandcontemporary.Itincludessuchimportant
modern topics as the molecular biology of forest trees, the role of forests in the carbon cycle, computer
modeling and the use of recently developed methods such as geographic information systems. More
traditionalaspectssuchasforestbiologyandecology,theprocessingofforestresourcesintoawiderangeof
products,forestrymanagementandpracticeandtheeconomicandsocialaspectsofforestryarebroughtup-
to-datehere.Notonlyarethecontributionsthemselvesuseful,buttheyalsodirecttheseriousinvestigatorto
morein-depthoradvancedmaterialoneachtopic.Itisalsomostusefulthatthisfineworkwillbeavailablein
an electronic version that will facilitate cross-referencing to related topics and references.
I know that I will find these volumes most useful and frequently used and I am sure that they will be a
standard reference work on forest sciences for at least the next decade. How timely at a period of human
history when there is a desperate need to stop deforestation, re-forest many destroyed areas and develop
better methods for sustainable use of forests and to conserve the many species of plants and animals which
they hold.
Prof. Sir Ghillean Prance FRS
School of Plant Sciences, University of Reading,
Reading, UK
INTRODUCTION
A tthestartoftheThirdMillenniumthelevelsofpublicandpoliticalattentiontoforests,theirbenefitsto
mankind, and their management are at their highest. National and international institutions,
governmental and non-governmental organizations, all forms of media and representatives of civil
society are searching for socially equitable methods of managing forests toobtainall theirmultiple benefits.
Underlying this search is the need for precise and relevant information about the forests, their uses
and management together with the political and social institutions that can best effect sustainable
management.
Our audience for this reference work includes libraries, governmental and non-governmental organiza-
tions, universities and individuals involved in research on forests, forest products and services, and relevant
topics,local,nationalandinternationaldecision-makingauthoritiesandadministrations,forestland-owners
and other forest-dependent individuals.
The ranges of biophysical and socio-economic aspects of forests, forestry, forest products and forest
services are extremely large; correspondingly, past and current research cover large numbers of scientific
disciplines and policy issues. Systematic research has been undertaken for over a century in some forest
sciencessuchassilvicultureandforestmanagement;inothertopicsnewlyemergingtechniques,suchasthose
of molecular genetics, are being developed to aid understanding of physiological and environmental
characteristicsoftrees andforests or toassist selectivebreedingof trees forplantations. AnEncyclopedia of
ForestSciencethereforehastoencompassabroadspectrumofpureandappliedsciences,ancientandmodern
technologies, and old and recent knowledge.
In this Encyclopedia we have obtained outstanding contributions of some 200 specialists covering 250
topics that have wide implications for forest conservation, management and use worldwide. Of course, it is
notpossibletocovereverypossiblesubjectofrelevancetoforestsbuttheonesselectedaregenerallyofglobal
interest;andeveniftheyareoflocal,nationalorregionalcharacter,theyareimportanttoallthoseconcerned
with forest management, research, education, training, policy-making or public information.
Becauseofthegreatbreadthofexpectedreadershipwehaveaskedawiderangeofcontributingexpertsto
produceuptoapproximately4000wordssummarizingcurrentviewsoftheirtopic.Thecontributionsarenot
written in the traditional form of a scientific journal article with detailed bibliographic references for all
major statements. Rather each is a continuous, highly readable description based on an author’s personal
view of the state of knowledge in her/his area of expertise. Selected major references are given at the end of
eachcontributiontofacilitateandencouragefurtherreadingonthesubject.Whereverpossiblephotographs,
other graphical illustrations and tables are used to make the material more concise and visualized. Cross-
referencingbetweencontributionsandtheprovisionofdummyentriesinthetableofcontentsfacilitateafull
coverage of material relevant to each topic.
Some contributions are short because it proved difficult to identify an author with the appropriate
experience and willingness to write full articles. However, these may be enlarged in future editions of the
Encyclopedia and in the web-based version of it. The availability of modern information technology
facilitatesnotonlythepreparationofsuchaworkbutalsothemaintenanceofitstimeliness,thespreadingof
its availability and the ease of searching and downloading selected material.
x INTRODUCTION
As Editors we thank the authors for their contributions, the editorial advisors for their specialist support,
and the staff of Elsevier for their prompt and effective actions that have allowed the four volumes of the
Encyclopedia tobepublishedwithin twoyearsofthe initialcommissioningofthis referencework.Wehope
thattheEncyclopediawillprovetobeavaluabletoolandsourceofinformationformanyyearstocome.In
particularwehopeitwillencourageagrowingpublicandadedicatedprofessiontounderstandthefactsand
institutions necessary for wise management, use and conservation of the world’s forest resources for the
equitable benefit of all mankind.
Jeffery Burley
Julian Evans
John A. Youngquist
GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
Structure of the Encyclopedia
The material in the Encyclopedia is arranged as a series of entries in alphabetical order. Most entries consist of several
articles that deal with various aspects of a topic and are arranged in a logical sequence within an entry. Some entries
comprise a singlearticle.
TohelpyourealizethefullpotentialofthematerialintheEncyclopediawehaveprovidedthreefeaturestohelpyou
findthe topicof yourchoice: a ContentsList, Cross-References andanIndex.
1. Contents List
Yourfirstpointofreferencewillprobablybethecontentslist.Thecompletecontentslistwillprovideyouwithboththe
volumenumberandthepagenumberoftheentry.Ontheopeningpageofanentryacontentslistisprovidedsothatthe
fulldetails of thearticles within theentry areimmediately available.
Alternativelyyoumaychoosetobrowsethroughavolumeusingthealphabeticalorderoftheentriesasyourguide.To
assist you in identifying your location within the Encyclopedia a running headline indicates the current entry and the
currentarticle within thatentry.
You will find ‘dummy entries’ where obvious synonyms exist for entries or where we have grouped together related
topics. Dummyentriesappear inboththe contents listandthe body ofthe text.
Example
Ifyouwere attempting tolocate material on yield tables andforecasting viathe contentslist:
YIELDTABLESseeMENSURATION:ForestMeasurements;GrowthandYield;TimberandTreeMeasurements;Yield
Tables,Forecasting, Modelingand Simulation.
ThedummyentrydirectsyoutotheYieldTables,ForecastingandSimulationarticle,intheMENSURATIONentry.At
the appropriatelocation inthe contents list,the page numbersfor articles underMensuration are given.
IfyouweretryingtolocatethematerialbybrowsingthroughthetextandyoulookedupYieldTablesthenthefollowing
information wouldbeprovided in the dummyentry:
YieldTablesseeMensuration:ForestMeasurements; Growthand Yield;TimberandTreeMeasurements; Yield
Tables, Forecasting, Modelingand Simulation.
Alternatively, ifyou were lookingupMensurationthe followinginformation could beprovided:
MENSURATION
Contents
Forest Measurements
Timberand TreeMeasurements
Growth andYield
Yield Tables,Forecasting, Modelingand Simulation
Tree-Ring Analysis