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E N ENCYCLOPEDIA C Y C o ENGINEERING GEOLOGY L f O P E D I A o f E A R T H S C I EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttteeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeedddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy E N PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeetttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttttteeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeerrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT.................................................. BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBoooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooobbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrroooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooowwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwsssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssskkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaannnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnndddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrriiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaannnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaarrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeerrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr C E S S E R I E S ENCYCLOPEDIA of ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Volume Editors PeterT.BobrowskyisaResearchScientistwiththeGeologicalSurveyofCanada(Sidney,BC)andAdjunctFullProfessoratSimonFraserUniversity(Burnaby,BC) andUniversityofVictoria(Victoria,BC).HereceivedhisPh.D.inGeologyin1988fromtheUniversityofAlberta,Canada,andformallyregisteredasaprofessional geologistwithEngineersandGeoscientistsBCin1992.Duringhis30-yearcareer,hehasworkedextensivelyinengineeringgeologywithaprimaryemphasison mineralresourcestudies(aggregates)andnaturalhazards(landslides,paleotsunamis).HewasthePresidentoftheGeologicalAssociationofCanada,Presidentofthe CanadianQuaternaryAssociation,SecretaryGeneralofIUGS,andiscurrentlythePresidentoftheInternationalConsortiumonLandslides. BrianMarkerreceivedB.Sc.andPh.D.degreesinGeologyfromtheUniversityofLondon,UK,in1968and1972,respectively.HebecameaCharteredGeologistin 1992.Heworkedforover30yearsfortheUKDepartmentoftheEnvironmentanditssuccessordepartmentsadvisingonlanduseplanningissuesassociatedwith mineralssupply,naturalhazards,contaminatedland,andwastemanagement.Sinceretirementin2006,hehadbeenanindependentconsultantaswellasservingasan EditorialBoardmemberoftheBulletinoftheIAEG,aCouncillorofthe GeologicalSociety(London),and,since2013,asChairmanoftheIUGSPublications Committee. Editorial Board MartinG.Culshaw ClaudioMargottini BritishGeologicalSurvey ItalianInstituteforEnvironmentalProtectionandResearch–ISPRA Nottingham,UK GeologicalSurveyofItaly UniversityofBirmingham Rome,Italy Birmingham,UK PaulMarinos JeromeDeGraff GeotechnicalDepartment DepartmentofEarthandEnvironmentalSciences SchoolofCivilEngineering CollegeofScienceandMathematics NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthens CaliforniaStateUniversity Athens,Greece Fresno,CA,USA VictorI.Osipov LaboratoryofSoilandRockEngineeringandMechanics LauranceDonnelly SergeevInstituteofEnvironmentalGeoscienceRAS Burnley,UK Moscow,Russia MichaelHendry AbdulShakoor DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering DepartmentofGeology UniversityofAlberta KentStateUniversity Edmonton,AB,Canada Kent,OH,USA JeffreyR.Keaton RoyJ.Shlemon AMECAmericas NewportBeach,CA,USA LosAngeles,CA,USA Aims of the Series TheSpringerEncyclopediaofEarthSciencesSeriesprovidescomprehensiveandauthoritativecoverageofallthemainareasintheEarthSciences.Eachvolume comprisesafocusedandcarefullychosencollectionofcontributionsfromleadingnamesinthesubject,withcopiousillustrationsandreferencelists. Thesebooksrepresentoneoftheworld’sleadingresourcesfortheEarthSciencescommunity.Previousvolumesarebeingupdatedandnewworkspublishedsothatthe volumeswillcontinuetobeessentialreadingforallprofessionalearthscientists,geologists,geophysicists,climatologists,andoceanographersaswellasforteachers andstudents.Mostvolumesarealsoavailableonline. About the Series Editor ProfessorCharlesW.Finklhaseditedand/orcontributedtomorethaneightvolumesintheEncyclopediaofEarthSciencesSeries.HehasbeentheExecutiveDirector oftheCoastalEducationandResearchFoundationandEditor-in-ChiefoftheinternationalJournalofCoastalResearchforthepast35years.HeisalsotheSeries EditoroftheCoastalResearchLibrary(Springer).Inadditiontotheseduties,heisDistinguishedUniversityProfessorEmeritusatFloridaAtlanticUniversity(FAU) (Boca Raton, Florida). He is a graduate of Oregon State University (Corvallis) and the University of Western Australia (Perth). Work experience includes the InternationalNickelCompanyofAustralia(Perth),CoastalPlanning&Engineering(BocaRaton,Florida),andTechnosGeophysicalConsulting(Miami,Florida).He haspublishednumerouspeer-reviewedtechnicalresearchpapersandeditedorco-editedandcontributedtomanybooks.Dr.FinklisaCertifiedProfessionalGeological Scientist(Arvada,Colorado),aCertifiedProfessionalSoilScientist(Madison,Wisconsin),aCertifiedWetlandScientist(Lawrence,Kansas),andaCharteredMarine Scientist(London).Academically,heservedasaDemonstratorattheUniversityofWesternAustralia,CourtesyProfessoratFloridaInternationalUniversity(Miami), ProgramProfessorandDirectoroftheInstituteofCoastalandMarineStudiesatNovaSoutheasternUniversity(PortEverglades,Florida),andFullProfessoratFAU. Duringhiscareer,heacquiredfieldexperienceinAustralia;theBahamas;PuertoRico,Jamaica;Brazil;PapuaNewGuineaandotherSWPacificislands;southern Africa;WesternEurope;andthePacificNorthwest,Midwest,andSoutheastUSA.Dr.FinklisamemberofseveralprofessionalsocietiesincludingtheGeological SocietyofAmerica;SoilScienceSocietyofAmerica;InstituteofMarineEngineering,ScienceandTechnology;andtheSocietyofWetlandSpecialists.Heisa recipientoftheInternationalBeachAdvocacyAward(FloridaShore&BeachPreservationAssociation),CertificateofGeorgeV.ChilingarMedalofHonor(Russian AcademyofNaturalSciences),andLifetimeCommitmenttoCoastalScienceAward(InternationalCoastalSymposium). Founding Series Editor ProfessorRhodesW.Fairbridge(deceased)haseditedmorethan24encyclopediasintheEarthSciencesSeries.Duringhiscareer,hehasworkedasapetroleum geologistintheMiddleEastandbeenaWWIIintelligenceofficerintheSWPacificandledexpeditionstotheSahara,ArcticCanada,ArcticScandinavia,Brazil,and NewGuinea.HewasEmeritusProfessorofGeologyatColumbiaUniversityandwasaffiliatedwiththeGoddardInstituteforSpaceStudies. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES ENCYCLOPEDIA of ENGINEERING GEOLOGY edited by PETER T. BOBROWSKY Sidney, BC, Canada BRIAN MARKER London, UK LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2018937970 ISBN:978-3-319-73566-5 Thispublicationisavailablealsoas: ElectronicpublicationunderISBN978-3-319-73568-9and PrintandelectronicbundleunderISBN978-3-319-73567-2 Coverphoto:Cheia,Prahovacounty,Romania.TheDN1AisanalternativetransitroadthatgoesfromPloiestitoBrasov (Transylvania),throughtheCarpathianMountainpassBratocea(atthepeakaltitudeof1.263m).Theroadwasbuiltin the60'stoaccommodateheavytransporttrucksthatarebannedfromusingthemainroad-DN1(E87)thatgoesthrough well-knowntouristiccitieslikeSinaiaandPredeal.ImageshotinJuly2016usingadrone.PhotobyCălin-AndreiStan. Everyefforthasbeenmadetocontactthecopyrightholdersofthefiguresandtableswhichhavebeenreproducedfrom other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions. All rights reserved for the contributions: Cambering; Dissolution; Earthquake Intensity; Earthquake Magnitude; Engineering Geomorphological Mapping; Evaporites; Glacier Environments; Ground Motion Amplification; Mountain Environments; Quick Clay; Voids #SpringerInternationalPublishingAG,partofSpringerNature2018 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialis concerned,speciﬁcallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductionon microﬁlmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation, computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbookare believedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsortheeditorsgivea warranty,expressorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhave beenmade. Printedonacid-freepaper ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbySpringerInternationalPublishingAG,partofSpringerNature. Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Editorial Board PeterT.Bobrowsky JeromeDeGraff GeologicalSurveyofCanada DepartmentofEarthandEnvironmentalSciences NaturalResourcesCanada CollegeofScienceandMathematics Sidney,BC,Canada CaliforniaStateUniversity Fresno,CA,USA MartinG.Culshaw LauranceDonnelly BritishGeologicalSurvey Burnley,UK Nottingham,UK UniversityofBirmingham Birmingham,UK vi EDITORIALBOARD MichaelHendry BrianMarker DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering London,UK UniversityofAlberta Edmonton,AB,Canada JeffreyR.Keaton PaulMarinos AMECAmericas GeotechnicalDepartment,SchoolofCivilEngineering LosAngeles,CA,USA NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthens Athens,Greece ClaudioMargottini VictorI.Osipov ItalianInstituteforEnvironmental LaboratoryofSoilandRockEngineeringandMechanics ProtectionandResearch–ISPRA SergeevInstituteofEnvironmentalGeoscienceRAS GeologicalSurveyofItaly Moscow Rome,Italy Russia EDITORIALBOARD vii AbdulShakoor RoyJ.Shlemon DepartmentofGeology NewportBeach,CA,USA KentStateUniversity Kent,OH,USA Contents Editorial Board v AngleofInternalFriction 22 JeffreyR.Keaton Contributors xvii AngleofRepose 23 Preface xxvii Nian-ShengCheng Acknowledgments xxix Aquifer 25 MaurizioGuerra Abrasion 1 BrianR.Marker Aquitard 27 MaurizioGuerra Accreditation 4 RobertE.Tepel ArmorStone 28 AcidMineDrainage 5 JeffreyR.Keaton PaulL.Younger Artesian 29 Acidity(pH) 6 MaurizioGuerra I.V.Galitskaya ArtificialGround 30 AeolianProcesses 6 ColinN.Waters BrianR.Marker AtterbergLimits 44 AerialPhotography 8 AbdulShakoor RichardGuthrie Avalanche 47 AeromagneticSurvey 13 PeterT.Bobrowsky WendyZhou Barton-BandisCriterion 49 Aggregate 18 NickBarton PeterT.Bobrowsky AggregateTests 19 BeachReplenishment 57 PeterT.Bobrowsky D.E.ReeveandH.Karunarathna Alkali-SilicaReaction 20 BearingCapacity 58 BrianR.Marker JeffreyR.Keaton Alteration 21 Bedrock 60 YonathanAdmassu MihaelaStãnciucu x CONTENTS BiologicalWeathering 61 ChemicalWeathering 114 MariaHeloisaBarrosdeOliveiraFrascáand IsabelM.R.Duarte,CelsoS.F.Gomesand ElianeAparecidaDelLama AntónioB.Pinho Blasting 62 ChézyFormula 120 GregoryL.Hempen RosalindMunro BoreholeInvestigations 63 ClassificationofRocks 122 EduardoKruse,SaeidEslamian,Kaveh ArpitaNandi Ostad-Ali-AskariandSayedehZahra Hosseini-Teshnizi ClassificationofSoils 125 IsabelM.R.Duarte,CarlosM.G.Rodriguesand Boreholes 68 AntónioB.Pinho NoureddineGaaloul,SaeidEslamianand KavehOstad-Ali-Askari Clay 133 Boulders 73 ArpitaNandi PeterT.Bobrowsky ClimateChange 134 Bridges 74 PaolaMercogliano,EdoardoBucchignani, VasantMatsagar,SaeidEslamian,Kaveh AlfredoRederandGuidoRianna Ostad-Ali-Askari,MohammadRaeisi,GeorgeLee, SonaPazdarandAidaBagheri-Basmenji Coal 148 LauranceDonnelly BrownfieldSites 92 BrianR.Marker CoastDefenses 149 H.KarunarathnaandD.E.Reeve BuildingStone 94 MariaHeloisaBarrosdeOliveiraFrascáand CoastalEnvironments 151 CidChiodiFilho EnzoPranziniandAllanWilliams BulkModulus 96 CoefficientofUniformity 158 JeffreyR.Keaton JeffreyR.Keaton CaliforniaBearingRatio 97 Cofferdam 159 JeffreyR.Keaton QinQian,SaeidEslamian,KavehOstad-Ali-Askari, MaryamMarani-Barzani,FarnazRafatand Cambering 98 AliHasantabar-Amiri PeterHobbsandA.J.MarkBarron CapRock 99 CohesiveSoils 161 RosalindMunro TejP.Gautam Capillarity 100 CollapsibleSoils 162 MihaelaStãnciucu MartinCulshawandI.Jefferson CasagrandeTest 102 Compaction 167 GwynLintern AbdulShakoor Casing 103 Compression 170 RonC.K.Wong JosephB.Adeyeri Catchment 106 Concrete 179 JeromeV.DeGraff RosalindMunro Cement 107 Conductivity 180 JohnL.Provis MichaeldeFreitas CharacterizationofSoils 108 ConePenetrometer 182 AbdulShakoor WendyZhou