Table Of Content

E NCYCLOPEDIA OF ECOLOGY Volume 1 A–C Volume 2 D–F Volume 3 G–O Volume 4 P–S Volume 5 T–X EDITORIAL BOARD EDITOR-IN-CHIEF SvenErikJørgensen ASSOCIATEEDITOR-INCHIEF BrianD.Fath EDITORS SteveBartell JanVymazal PrincipalScientistandManagerofMaryvilleOperations, Novedomy165,16400Praha6,CzechRepublic E2ConsultingEngineers,Inc.,339WhitecrestDrive, SimoneBastianoni Maryville,TN37801,USA DepartmentofChemical&BiosystemsSciences, Tae-SooChon UniversityofSiena,ViaA.Moro,2,53100Siena,Italy DivisionofBiologicalSciences,PusanNational DonalddeAngelis University,30Jangjeon-Dong,Geumjeong-Gu,Busan DepartmentofBiology,UniversityofMiami,P.O.Box (Pusan)609-735,RepublicofKorea(SouthKorea) 249118,CoralGables,FL 33124,USA JamesElser MichaelGraham Ecology,Evolution,andEnvironmentalScience,Schoolof MossLandingMarineLaboratories,8272MossLanding LifeSciences,ArizonaStateUniversity,Tempe,AZ Road,MossLanding,CA95039,USA 85287-4501,USA RudolphHarmsen WilliamGrant DepartmentofBiology,Queen’sUniversity,Kingston, TexasA&MUniversity,307ANagleHall,CollegeStation, Ontario,K7L3N6,Canada TX77843,USA YuriSvirezhevy LucaPalmeri PotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearch,Postfach DipartimentiProcessiChimicidell’Ingegneria,ViaMarzolo9, 601203,D-14412Potsdam,Germany 35131Padova,Italy AlexeyVoinov AnastasiaSvirejeva-Hopkins UniversityofVermont,Burlington,VT05405,USA PotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearch,Postfach 601203,D-14412Potsdam,Germany E NCYCLOPEDIA OF ECOLOGY Editor-in-Chief SVEN ERIK JØRGENSEN Copenhagen University, Faculty ofPharmaceutical Sciences, Institute A, Section of Environmental Chemistry,Toxicology andEcotoxicology, University Park 2, CopenhagenØ, 2100, Denmark Associate Editor-in-Chief BRIAN D. FATH Departmentof BiologicalSciences, Towson University, Towson,Maryland 21252, USA AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEWYORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO ElsevierB.V. Radarweg29,1043NXAmsterdam,TheNetherlands Firstedition2008 Copyright(cid:2)2008ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved ThefollowingarticlesareUSgovernmentworksinthepublicdomainandarenotsubjecttocopyright: DEATH FISHERYMODELS INVASIVESPECIES REPRODUCTIVETOXICITY RISKMANAGEMENTSAFETYFACTOR SOILEROSIONBYWATER SWAMPS TROPICALSEASONALFOREST TURNOVERTIME ThefollowingarticleisCrownCopyright: FORESTMODELS Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeanselectronic,mechanical,photocopying, recordingorotherwisewithoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher PermissionsmaybesoughtdirectlyfromElsevier’sScience&TechnologyRights DepartmentinOxford,UK:phone(+44)(0)1865843830;fax(+44)(0)1865853333; email:permissions@elsevier.com.Alternativelyyoucansubmityourrequestonlineby visitingtheElsevierwebsiteathttp://elsevier.com/locate/permissions,andselecting ObtainingpermissiontouseElseviermaterial Notice Noresponsibilityisassumedbythepublisherforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersons orpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuse oroperationofanymethods,products,instructionsorideascontainedinthematerialherein. Becauseofrapidadvancesinthemedicalsciences,inparticular,independent verificationofdiagnosesanddrugdosagesshouldbemade BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCatalogNumber:2008923435 ISBN:978-0-444-52033-3 ForinformationonallElsevierpublications visitourwebsiteatbooks.elsevier.com PrintedandboundinSpain 08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 In Memoriam Yuri Svirezhev† 22 September 1938 – 22 February 2007 CONTENTS ContentsbySubjectArea xxiii Preface xxxi GuidetoEncyclopedia xxxiii VOLUME 1 A ABIOTICANDBIOTICDIVERSITYINTHEBIOSPHERE PJGeogievich 1 ABUNDANCE JTHarvey 4 ABUNDANCEBIOMASSCOMPARISONMETHOD RMWarwick 11 ACCLIMATION BDemmig-Adams,MRDumlao,MKHerzenachandWWAdamsIII 15 ACIDIFICATION ALu¨kewilleandCAlewell 23 ACUTEANDCHRONICTOXICITY WTWallerandHJAllen 32 ADAPTATION DJBoothandPBiro 43 ADAPTIVEAGENTS LParrott 47 ADAPTIVECYCLE SEJørgensen 51 ADAPTIVEMANAGEMENTANDINTEGRATIVEASSESSMENTS LGunderson 55 ADSORPTION YArtioli 60 AGESTRUCTUREANDPOPULATIONDYNAMICS LCBender 65 AGE-CLASSMODELS DHLaFever 73 AGRICULTURE DLyuri 76 AGRICULTUREMODELS JCAscoughII,LRAhuja,GSMcMaster,LMaandAAAndales 85 AGRICULTURESYSTEMS OAndre´nandTKa¨tterer 96 AGROFORESTRY PKRNair,AMGordonandMRosaMosquera-Losada 101 AIRQUALITYMODELING RSanJose´,ABaklanov,RSSokhi,KKaratzasandJLPe´rez 111 ALLEEEFFECTS CMGreene 123 ALLOMETRICPRINCIPLES SEJørgensen 128 ALLOPATRY PBMarko 131 ALPINEECOSYSTEMSANDTHEHIGH-ELEVATIONTREELINE CKo¨rner 138 ALPINEFOREST WKSmith,DMJohnsonandKReinhardt 144 vii viii Contents ALTRUISM KRFoster 154 AMENSALISM RLKitchingandRHarmsen 160 AMMONIFICATION JSStrock 162 ANIMALDEFENSESTRATEGIES DSpiteller 165 ANIMALHOMERANGES PRMoorcroft 174 ANIMALPHYSIOLOGY CECooperandPCWithers 181 ANIMALPREYDEFENSES JMJeschke,CLaforschandRTollrian 189 ANTAGONISTICANDSYNERGISTICEFFECTSOFANTIFOULINGCHEMICALSINMIXTURE SNagata,XZhouand HOkamura 194 ANTHROPOSPHERICANDANTHROPOGENICIMPACTONTHEBIOSPHERE SPegov 204 ANTIBIOTICSINAQUATICANDTERRESTRIALECOSYSTEMS BWBrooks,JDMaulandJBBelden 210 ANTIPREDATIONBEHAVIOR LADugatkin 218 APPLICATIONOFECOLOGICALINFORMATICS MJDreyfus-LeonandMScardi 222 APPLIEDECOLOGY AGeorges,LJHoneandRHNorris 227 AQUATICORGANISMS KSChristoffersen 232 ARTIFICIALNEURALNETWORKS SLekandYSPark 237 ARTIFICIALNEURALNETWORKS:TEMPORALNETWORKS Y-SParkandT-SChon 245 ASCENDENCY SAllesinaandABodini 254 ASSIMILATIVECAPACITY WGLandis 264 ASSOCIATION JEDuffy 269 ASTROBIOLOGY CPMcKay 272 ATMOSPHERICDEPOSITION JMPacyna 275 AUTECOLOGY ERPianka 285 AUTOCATALYSIS REUlanowicz 288 AUTOTROPHS RFSage 291 AVERAGETAXONOMICDIVERSITYANDDISTINCTNESS RMWarwick 300 B BAYESIANNETWORKS MEBorsuk 307 BEHAVIORALANDECOLOGICALGENETICS UGanslosser 317 BENTHICRESPONSEINDEX SBosco,FCoppolaandSBastianoni 323 ECOLOGICALINDICATORSseeECOLOGICALINDICATORS:PollutionIndices BENZENE JRKuykendall 326 BERGER–PARKERINDEX JCIngram 332 BIFURCATION WWang 335 BIOACCUMULATION KBorga˚ 346 BIOAVAILABILITY KAAndersonandWEHillwalker 348 BIODEGRADABILITY BRZaidiandSHImam 357 BIODEGRADATION SEJørgensen 366 BIODIVERSITY RDirzoandEMendoza 368 BIOGEOCHEMICALAPPROACHESTOENVIRONMENTALRISKASSESSMENT VNBashkinandOADemidova 378 Contents ix BIOGEOCHEMICALMODELS FLHellweger 386 BIOGEOCOENOSISASANELEMENTARYUNITOFBIOGEOCHEMICALWORKINTHEBIOSPHERE JPuzachenko 396 EVOLUTIONARYECOLOGYseeGENERALECOLOGY:IslandBiogeography BIOLOGICALCONTROLMODELS GMGurr 403 BIOLOGICALINTEGRITY JRKarr 408 BIOLOGICALNITROGENFIXATION NRascioandNLaRocca 412 BIOLOGICALRHYTHMS RRefinetti 420 BIOLOGICALWASTEWATERTREATMENTSYSTEMS MPellandAWo¨rman 426 BIOMAGNIFICATION KGDrouillard 441 BIOMASS RAHoughton 448 BIOMASS,GROSSPRODUCTION,ANDNETPRODUCTION SFocardi 453 BIOPHILIA SRKellert 462 BIOSPHERE:VERNADSKY’SCONCEPT YMSvirezhev†andASvirejva-Hopkins 467 BIOTOPES PGDimitrakopoulosandAYTroumbis 471 BODYRESIDUES LSMcCarty 475 BODYSIZE,ENERGETICS,ANDEVOLUTION FASmith 477 BODY-SIZEPATTERNS ABassetandLSabetta 483 BOLTZMANNLEARNING BBassandTNixon 489 BOREALFOREST DLDeAngelis 493 BOTANICALGARDENS MSoderstrom 495 BUFFERZONES JSSchouandPSchaarup 502 C CALCIUMCYCLE CLDeLaRocha,CJHoffandJGBryce 507 CANNIBALISM JCMitchellandSCWalls 513 CARBONCYCLE VNBashkinandIVPriputina 517 CARRYINGCAPACITY MAHixon 528 CATASTROPHETHEORY PDRoopnarine 531 CAVES FGHowarth 536 CELLULARAUTOMATA AKDewdney 541 CHAOS SEJørgensen 550 CHAPARRAL JEKeeley 551 CHEMICALCOMMUNICATION CKost 557 GENERALECOLOGYseeGENERALECOLOGY:Autotrophs CLASSICALANDAUGMENTATIVEBIOLOGICALCONTROL RGVanDriescheandKAbell 575 CLASSIFICATIONANDREGRESSIONTREES GGMoisen 582 CLIMATECHANGE1:SHORT-TERMDYNAMICS GAlexandrov 588 CLIMATECHANGE2:LONG-TERMDYNAMICS WvonBloh 592 CLIMATECHANGE3:HISTORYANDCURRENTSTATE IIMokhovandAVEliseev 598 CLIMATECHANGEMODELS AGanopolski 603 CLINES EESotka 613 x Contents COASTALANDESTUARINEENVIRONMENTS JCMarques 619 COASTALZONEMANAGEMENT EWolanski,ANewton,NRabalaisandCLegrand 630 COASTALZONERESTORATION CBCraft,JBertramandSBroome 637 COEVOLUTION RBLangerhans 644 COEVOLUTIONOFTHEBIOSPHEREANDCLIMATE DWSchwartzman 648 COEVOLUTIONARYRESEARCH CDEaton 659 COEXISTENCE DJBoothandBRMurray 664 COGNITIONANDBEHAVIORALECOLOGY JLGould 668 COLONIZATION MJDonahueandCTLee 672 COMMENSALISMS AMHirschandNAFujishige 679 COMMUNICATION PKMcGregor 683 COMMUNITY AJUnderwood 689 COMPETITIONANDBEHAVIOR AŁomnicki 695 COMPETITIONANDCOEXISTENCEINMODELPOPULATIONS KCBurnsandPJLester 701 COMPETITIONANDCOMPETITIONMODELS OGilad 707 COMPOSTINGANDFORMATIONOFHUMICSUBSTANCES RBHarrison 713 COMPUTERLANGUAGES BBassandTNixon 720 CONCEPTUALDIAGRAMSANDFLOWDIAGRAMS AAVoinov 728 CONNECTANCEANDCONNECTIVITY MHolyoak 737 CONSERVATIONBIOLOGICALCONTROLANDBIOPESTICIDESINAGRICULTURAL SDWratten 744 ECOLOGICALINDICATORSseeECOLOGICALINDICATORS:CoastalandEstuarineEnvironments CONSTRUCTEDWETLANDS,SUBSURFACEFLOW JVymazal 748 CONSTRUCTEDWETLANDS,SURFACEFLOW JVymazal 765 COOPERATION RGadagkar 776 COPPER GFRiedel 778 CORALREEFS DEBurkepileandMEHay 784 CRUDEOIL,OIL,GASOLINEANDPETROL CYLinandRSTjeerdema 797 CYBERNETICS AMMakarieva 806 CYCLINGANDCYCLINGINDICES SAllesina 812 VOLUME 2 D DATAMINING SDzˇeroski 821 DEATH AASharov 831 DECOMPOSITIONANDMINERALIZATION LWangandPD’Odorico 838 DEFENSESTRATEGIESOFMARINEANDAQUATICORGANISMS DSpiteller 844 DEFORESTATION AShvidenko 853 DEMOGRAPHY B-ESæther 860