Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology. A-H

696 Pages·2004·6.661 MB·English

by  Spielberger C.

Editor–in–Chief
CHARLES D. SPIELBERGER
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida, USA
CharlesD.SpielbergerisDistinguishedResearchProfessorofPsychologyandDirectoroftheCenterforResearchin
BehavioralMedicineandHealthPsychologyattheUniversityofSouthFlorida.Author,co-author,oreditorofmore
than 350 professional publications, Spielberger’s current research focuses on anxiety, anger, curiosity, depression,
jobstress,andlifestylefactorsthatcontributetotheetiologyandprogressionofcancerandcardiovasculardisorders.
HisState-TraitAnxietyInventory(1970,1983),withtranslationsin66languagesanddialects,hasbecomeastandard
internationalmeasureofanxiety.HehasservedasPresidentoftheInternationalAssociationofAppliedPsychology,
theInternationalCouncilofPsychologists,andtheInternationalStressManagementAssociationandwasthe100th
President of theAmerican Psychological Association.
i
Editorial Advisors
John W. Adair Machiko Fukuhara Joe Matarazzo
UniversityofManitoba TokiwaUniversity OregonHealthSciencesUniversity
Winnipeg,Manitoba,Canada Mito,Japan Portland,Oregon,USA
Michael Harris Bond James Georgas
ChineseUniversityofHongKong UniversityofAthens Charles Spielberger
HongKong,China Athens,Greece UniversityofSouthFlorida
Pieter J. D. Drenth Frank Heller Tampa,Florida,USA
VrijeUniversiteitAmsterdam TavistockInstituteofHumanRelations
Amsterdam,TheNetherlands London, UnitedKingdom Tuomo Tikkanen
Edwin A. Fleishman Stevan Hobfoll FinnishPsychologicalAssociation
GeorgeMasonUniversity KentStateUniversity Helsinki,Finland
Potomac,Maryland,USA Kent,Ohio,USA
Raymond D. Fowler Anna Leonova Bernhard Wilpert
AmericanPsychologicalAssociation MoscowStateUniversity TechnischeUniversita¨tBerlin
Washington,D.C.,USA Moscow,RussianFederation Berlin,Germany
Michael Frese Claude Levy-Leboyer
Justus-LiebigUniversityofGiessen Universite´ Rene´ Descartes
Giessen,Germany Paris,France
iii
Section Editors
Neil Anderson Jane Goodman-Delahunty Roy Malpass
UniversiteitvanAmsterdam UniversityofNewSouthWales UniversityofTexas
Amsterdam,TheNetherlands Sydney,NewSouthWales,Australia ElPaso,Texas,USA
Andrew Baum Yuri Hanin Rick R. McCown
ResearchInstituteforOlympicSports
UniversityofPittsburgh DuquesneUniversity
Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania,USA Jyvaskyla,Finland Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania,USA
Ann Higgins-D’Alessandro
Jose´ M. Prieto
John W. Berry
FordhamUniversity
UniversidadComplutensedeMadrid
Queen’sUniversity Bronx,NewYork,USA
Madrid,Spain
Kingston,Ontario,Canada
Robert Hogan
Donald K. Routh
Mirilia Bonnes HoganAssessmentSystems
Tulsa,Oklahoma,USA UniversityofMiami
Universita` degliStudidiRoma‘‘LaSapienza’’
Miami,Florida,USA
Rome,Italy Barry Kantowitz
UniversityofMichigan Mark L. Savickas
Heliodoro Carpintero
AnnArbor,Michigan,USA NortheasternOhioUniversitiesCollege
UniversidadComplutensedeMadrid
Uichol Kim ofMedicine
Madrid,Spain
Rootstown,Ohio,USA
Chung-AngUniversity
Giuseppe Carrus Seoul,Korea Margaret Semrud-Clikeman
Universita` degliStudidiRoma‘‘LaSapienza’’ Howard M. Knoff UniversityofTexas
Rome,Italy U.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices Austin,Texas,USA
LittleRock,Arkansas,USA
Patrizia Catellani Harry C. Triandis
CatholicUniversityofMilan Frederick T. L. Leong UniversityofIllinois,Urbana-Champaign
Milan,Italy UniversityofTennessee Champaign,Illinois,USA
Knoxville,Tennessee,USA
Florence Denmark W. Fred van Raaij
Peter A. Lichtenberg
PaceUniversity UniversiteitvanTilburg
WayneStateUniversity
NewYork,NewYork,USA Tilburg,TheNetherlands
Detroit,Michigan,USA
Rocio Ferna´ndez-Ballesteros Garcia Ingrid Lunt Sheldon Zedeck
Auto´nomaUniversidaddeMadrid UniversityofLondon UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley
Madrid,Spain London,UnitedKingdom Berkeley,California,USA
iv
Preface
During the past 50 years, there has been remarkable The development and current status of applied
progress in the articulation of psychological theory, psychology can be best understood by examining the
increasingly sophisticated reports of empirical re- historical evolution of the field, which is cogently
search, and a dramatic expansion in professional describedbyHelioCarpintero,theofficialHistorianof
applications of psychology in all areas of modern life. the IAAP. In his overview article on the history of
Applied psychology requires both a sound scientific appliedpsychology,Carpinterohighlightsthebenefits
foundationandattentiontothepracticalproblemsthat resulting from psychologists joining together to form
are encountered in applying psychology to an infinite professional associations that have facilitated the
variety of life settings. Growing public recognition of development and integration of psychological theory
the potential contributions of psychology to solving and research and that have stimulated and guided
life’s problems has also fostered rapid growth in the more effective applications of psychology in profes-
number of psychologists who are engaged in research sional work.
and in professional practice throughout the world. Founded in 1920 as the Association Internationale
The need for an authoritative publication that des Conferences de Psychotechnique (International
reviews and evaluates the numerous applications of Association for Psychotechnology), the IAAP adopted
professional psychology has been recognized for itspresentnamein1955.EdouardClapre˜deconvened
a number of years, and has been of special interest to and chaired the first meeting of the association, held
themembersoftheInternationalAssociationofApplied in Geneva, Switzerland in 1920, and served as its
Psychology(IAAP),theworld’soldestandlargestmem- President for more than 20 years. Meetings were held
bership organization of individual psychologists. The in a number of European cities, including Barcelona,
interests and concerns of IAAP members, who reside Milan, Paris, Moscow, and Prague. An excellent
inmorethan80countries,havebeenstronglynotedby history of the evolution and development of applied
former IAAP presidents Edwin A. Fleishman, Claude psychology and the IAAP can be found in the address
Levy-Leboyer, and Harry C. Triandis. given by former President Edwin A. Fleishman on
Significant contributions to international applica- receiving the 1999 American Psychological Associa-
tions of psychology were explicitly recognized and tion’s Award for Distinguished Contributions to the
discussed in the context of their diverse societal International Advancement of Psychology (American
settings by Bernhard Wilpert in his Presidential Psychologist, November, 1999, pp. 1008–1016).
address at the IAAP’s 24th International Congress of For recommending that the IAAP take an active
Applied Psychology in 1998. It was my honor and role in sponsoring and developing the Encyclopedia
pleasure to succeed Professor Wilpert as President of Applied Psychology, we are indebted to George
of the IAAP at this Congress, which was held in San Zimmar, an active IAAP member and former senior
Francisco, California, and to begin participating in sponsoringeditoratAcademicPress,nowElsevier.The
discussions to identify the most important contribu- first step in developing the encyclopedia was the
tions to applied psychology that are reported in this appointment of an Advisory Board composed of
encyclopedia. distinguished colleagues representing all areas of
xxi
xxii Preface
applied psychology. In addition to recommending the Itshouldbenoted,however,thatitwasnotpossibleto
majorareasandthespecifictopicstobecoveredinthe cover all of the many areas of applied psychology.
encyclopedia, the Advisory Board identified highly Several emerging areas are not included because we
qualified colleagues who would be invited to serve as failedtorecognizetheirimportanceatthetimethetopics
Section Editors for the selected areas. wereselectedfortheencyclopedia.Itisalsounfortunate
The responsibilities of the Section Editors included thatafewauthorswereunabletomeetthedeadlinesfor
writing a major article to provide an overview and submittingthemanuscriptsfortheirarticles.
analysisoftheirrespectiveareasandworkingwiththe The Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology is truly a
Editor-in-Chief and the Advisory Board in identifying product of the collaborative efforts of the members of
the specific topics to be included in each area. They the IAAP. We are especially indebted to former IAAP
also helped to determine the amount of space to be PresidentsEdwinA.Fleishman,HarryC.Triandis,and
allocated for each topic and recommended colleagues Bernhard Wilpert, and to our current president,
with outstanding knowledge and expertise to serve as Michael Frese, for their leadership, encouragement,
theauthors forthe individualarticles. In addition, the and tangible contributions to the encyclopedia. For
Section Editors reviewed and edited the articles that their dedicated contributions to the encyclopedia,
presented information on the topics that were related IwouldalsoliketothankthemembersoftheAdvisory
to the subject matter that was included in their Board and theSection Editors,whosenames are listed
sections. in the front matter. Finally, on behalf of the IAAP,
The articles that are included in the encyclopedia I thank the authors who contributed articles in their
are presented in alphabetical order, as determined by areas of expertise and the editorial and production
the title of each article. Consequently, the underlying staff of Elsevier for the tremendous amount of time
section organization will not be readily apparent. At and energy that was needed to bring this large project
theconclusionofeacharticle,thereaderisdirectedto to fruition.
additional articles that include related information.
The authors of each article also provide a number of CHARLES D. SPIELBERGER, Ph.D., ABPP
references that are recommended for further reading. President,IAAP,1998–2002
Personality and Emotion in Late Life
a0005
Nicole Alea, Manfred Diehl, and Susan Bluck
UniversityofFlorida,Gainesville,Florida,USA
1. Introduction longitudinaldesign Astudydesignthatallowsresearchersto
2. PersonalityinLateLife drawconclusionsaboutage-relatedchangesbyexamining
3. EmotioninLateLife the same group of individuals at different ages over a
4. ConcludingRemarks:LinkingPersonalityandEmotion periodoftime.
FurtherReading personality Characteristicsofanindividualthatarerelatively
stableandendureacrosstimeandsettings.
primary emotions Set of emotions that are fundamental in
organizinghumanthoughtandactionacrossthelifespan,
including happiness, fear, anger, sadness, surprise, dis-
GLOSSARY gust,andinterest.
rank-order consistency The consistency of an individual’s
affect optimization Tendency to regulate emotional states relativeplacementorrankwithinagroupovertime.
toward morepositiveaffective experiences andawayfrom
negativeemotion.
cohort Groupofpeoplewhoarepartofthesamegeneration This article reviews the literature on personality
and, as a consequence, share similar life experiences and development and emotional experience across the adult
historicalinfluences.
lifespan,withaparticularemphasisonlatelife.Itreviews
cohort-sequentialdesign Astudydesignthatallowsresearch-
theoretical developments and challenges, discusses
ers to disentangle the effects of cohort and age as it tests
methodologicalissues,andpresentsthemajorempirical
differentcohortsatthesameagesacrossaperiodoftime.
findings about personality and emotion in late life. It
cross-sectionaldesign Astudydesignthatallowsresearchers
concludes with a discussion of how future work that
todrawconclusionsaboutagedifferencesbytestingindi-
vidualsofdifferentagesatonepointintime. better integrates these two areas would be beneficial in
emotionregulation Theabilitytoself-regulateormanagethe advancingourunderstandingofwell-beinginlatelife.
internalexperienceandexternalexpressionofemotion.
emotions Short-lived negative or positive responses and
reactionstoeventsintheenvironment,orinternalcogni- 1. INTRODUCTION s0005
tions,thatinvolvechangesinbodyphysiology,subjective
experiences,andexpressivebehaviors.
Advances in health care and public health practices
lifespandevelopment Developmentofindividualsacrossthe
have created a new culture of ‘‘old age.’’ But what are
life span characterized by multidirectionality and multi-
dimensionality; that is, developmental trajectories are oldpeoplelike?Negativestereotypessuggestthatolder
assumed to include growth, stability, and decline within adults have certain personality characteristics, that is,
andacrossbehavioraldomains. that they are stubborn, set in their ways, and/or afraid
EncyclopediaofAppliedPsychology, 1 #2004ElsevierInc.
VOLUME3 Allrightsreserved.
2 Personality and Emotion in Late Life
to take risks. Competing positive stereotypes suggest 2.1. Theoretical Issues s0015
that older people are full of grace and dignity and are
2.1.1. Personality Theories s0020
compassionate and wise. How do old people feel?
Again, there are competing cultural conceptions. It is Labouvie-Vief and Diehl, in a 1998 review of life span
often believed that old people are lonely and theories,pointedoutthattwomajortheoreticalperspec-
depressed. On the other hand, old people are often tiveshaveledtheareaofpersonalitydevelopment.The
viewed as carefree and satisfied. This article moves developmental-level approach is rooted in the psycho-
beyondculturalstereotypesofpersonalityandemotion dynamic tradition, with theorists such as Freud, Jung,
in later life to present the theories, methods, and and Erikson. This approach is categorized by develop-
findings gleanedfrom scholarly research. mentalstagesthatemphasizequalitativechangesinper-
Historically,many psychologicalcharacteristics (e.g., sonality during different life periods. For example,
intelligence, learning ability) werecharacterized by de- Erikson theorized that each stage of development is
cline inlate life. Morerecently,however, psychologists characterizedbya‘‘psychosocialcrisis’’betweenoppos-
have begun to focus on the positive experiences asso- ing tendencies (e.g., generativity vs stagnation during
ciated with aging. This dynamic tension between the midlife) that must be integrated for the self to fully
positive and negative aspects of late-life functioning develop.AlthoughFreud’stheoryemphasizedthatper-
was elucidated in a 1987 article by Paul Baltes of the sonalitywassetatafairlyyoungage,latermodifications
MaxPlanckInstituteforHumanDevelopmentinBerlin, (e.g., by Erikson and Loevinger) and extensions
Germany.Heproposedthelife-spanapproachandpos- includedlifelongprocessesofpersonalitydevelopment.
tulated that life span development is multidirectional The trait approach assumes that personality is com-
and multidimensional. That is, different psychological posed of a number of basic behavioral tendencies (i.e.,
characteristicsshowdifferentdevelopmentaltrajectories traits)andhasfocusedonthemeasurementofthesebasic
(e.g.,growth,stability,decline)anddifferenttrajectories traits.McCraeandCosta’s‘‘BigFive’’modelofpersonality
may coexist for behavioral functions within the same isoneprominentexampleofthisapproach.Accordingto
domain,makinggrowthandpositivedevelopmentpos- thistheory,therearefivebroadtraitsthatmakeuphuman
sibleevenintolatelife.Indeed,Smith’sfindingsfromthe personality: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to
longitudinal Berlin Aging Study show that successful Experience,Agreeableness,andConscientiousness.Trait
aging can be defined in terms of the ratio between theoristsemphasizethestabilityofpersonalitybeginning
gainsandlosses. inearlyadulthood.
Personality and emotion have been at the forefront A fairly recent addition to the personality literature
of research showing positive gains or maintenance of is the contextual approach, which considers sociocul-
functioning inlate life. As such, research on personal- turalandenvironmentalinfluencesthatmayaffecthow
ityandemotionoffersawindowonfacetsofsuccessful personality develops across the life span. Researchers
aging. This article reviews each area of work sepa- such as Helson emphasize that people’s environments
rately, focusing on major theories, methods, and em- andexperiencesinfluencewhotheybecome,atleastin
piricalresults. part. In contrast to the developmental-level and trait
theories, the contextual approach argues for the mal-
leability of personality across a lifetime. What are the
s0010 2. PERSONALITY IN LATE LIFE mechanisms that lead to changes, or that sustain con-
tinuity, inpersonality?
The term ‘‘personality’’ refers to the relatively stable
characteristics of an individual that endure across
time and settings. At first glance, this definition sug-
2.1.2. Mechanisms of Continuity and Change s0025
geststhatpersonalitymustbestableacrossadulthood;
for example, an extraverted 30-year-old is expected to In a 1999 review, Caspi and Roberts summarized
beextravertedwhenheorsheis65yearsold.Evidence mechanisms that support continuity and those that
supportsagooddealofcontinuityinadultpersonality, facilitate change in personality across the adult life
but there are also data showing that change occurs. span. Genetics are thought to be a major mechanism
Whether a researcher favors a view of stability or one leading to continuity. Data such as the MacArthur
of change depends mostly on his or her theoretical Longitudinal Twin Study suggest that approximately
perspective. 80%ofpersonalitystabilitycanbeattributedtogenetic
Personality and Emotion in Late Life 3
factors. Notable, however, is that genes seem to be- inthiswayhasonlyrecentlyreceivedadequateattention
come less influential in late life. As twins age, they because doing so requires complicated longitudinal
become less similar, suggesting that environmental designsofintraindividualchangeandadvancedstatisti-
influencesplayanincreasinglystrongerroleasindivid- cal analyses. Rather, researchers have focused their at-
uals age. tention on two other types of continuity. Differential
Environmental factors, such as differences in life continuity refers to the consistency of an individual’s
experiences and socialization, are the mechanisms that relative placement within a group over time, that is,
are thought to produce changes in personality. For ex- rank-order consistency. For example, in the case of
ample,inaclassicstudy,HelsonandMoaneshowedthat high rank-order consistency, individuals are expected
interpersonal dominance tends to increase in women to preserve their rank over time, whereas low rank-
whoactivelypursueaprofessionalcareer,whereasrais- order consistency is indicative of the fact that people
ingchildrentendstoheightenawoman’slevelofempa- are shifting around in terms of their rank. The second
thy. Thus, social roles that carry implicit and explicit commonly studied continuity is absolute continuity,
demands can shape personality during adulthood. which referstostability inthe level of a particularper-
Individuals can also learn new behavioral patterns, at sonalitycharacteristicovertime.Itisimportanttonote
anyage,byobservingothersorbygettingfeedbackfrom that when most individuals change in the same direc-
others.Thistypeofsociallearningrefutestheoldadage tion,changesinmeanlevelcanoccurovertimewithout
that ‘‘You can’t teach an old dog new tricks.’’ However, greatchangesinrank-orderconsistency.Thus,therecan
socialandphysicalenvironmentscanalsoplayarolein bevarioustypesofcontinuity,orlackthereof,observed
maintaining continuity. To the extent that people’s in longitudinal assessments. There are also various fac-
environmentsremainstable,theyfosterstabilityinper- torsthataffectwhetherchangeorcontinuityisobserved.
sonality. Consistent environments tend to encourage
consistency in personality across the life span. Thus,
2.2.2. Factors Affecting Whether Continuity s0040
geneticsandenvironmentcontributetopersonalitycon-
or Change Is Observed
tinuity and change in a complex integrated fashion.
Researchers’ theoretical perspectives, as well as their Recent meta-analyses conducted independently by
views of continuity and change, affect the questions Ardelt and by Roberts and DelVecchio identified sim-
theyaskandthemethodsandmeasurestheyuse. ilar factors affecting whether change or continuity in
personality is observed in longitudinal studies. Three
factors tend to bias results toward stability. The first
s0030 2.2. Methods and Measures
factorisanindividual’sageattheinitialtimeoftesting.
Early theorists, such as Allport, Cattell, and Murray, Theolderpeoplearewhenpersonalityisfirstassessed,
suggestedthatpersonalityshouldbestudiedovertime. the greater stability coefficients tend to be. Second,
During more recent years, Block has advocated study- length of retest interval can affect findings. The closer
ing personality ‘‘the long way,’’ that is, using longitu- together the times of testing, the more consistent per-
dinal methods. Although the majority of personality sonality appears. Third, the type of measurement in-
research is still cross-sectional in nature, the number strumentcanalsobiasresults.Self-reportchecklistsof
of longitudinal studies has risen considerably during personality traits, the most commonly used instru-
recent years and invaluable information has been ments with older adults, tend to overestimate person-
obtained regarding personality continuity and change ality stability because individuals are usuallybiased in
inlate life. favor of reporting continuity. Behavioral observations
get around the self-report bias in that they involve
observations of how people behave across contexts.
s0035 2.2.1. Types of Continuity in Longitudinal
Giventheircontextualnature,behavioralobservations
Research
are more sensitive to changes in personality, but they
Everydayconceptualizationsofcontinuityandchangein have rarelybeen usedwith olderadults.
personality are typically thought of at the individual Other factors have an effect on whether change in
level,thatis,involvingintraindividualvariabilityinper- personality is likely to be observed. Life events and
sonality(referredtoasipsativecontinuity).Forexample, transitions (e.g., retirement, widowhood) that individ-
has grandpa changed during the past 10 years, or is he uals go through while participating in a longitudinal
thesamepersonheusedtobe?Investigatingpersonality study may suggest change in personality. That is, as
4 Personality and Emotion in Late Life
individuals respond to new role demands, they may be the typical statistical methods used, and the general
learningnewwaysinwhichtocope.Forexample,finan- conclusions. This section reviews major empirical
cial strain that can accompany retirement may lead a results supporting both continuity and change in
persontobecomemoreworried(with‘‘worrying’’being personality.
partofthetraitofNeuroticism)thantheyusuallyaredue
to the loss of income. This may be a new behavior that
2.3.1. Evidence for Continuity s0050
emerged as a result of the social transition, and it
becomes incorporated into the individual’s personality There is quite a bit of evidence pointing toward con-
if reinforced over time or may be a temporary way of tinuity of personality during adulthood and late life.
dealing with a new life transition. Unknowingly,
Costa and McCrae’s Baltimore Longitudinal Study
researcherswouldobservechangesinpersonality. beganin1980andconsistsofapproximately1000partic-
Historicalexperiencesandgenerationaleffectscanalso ipants ages 20 to 96 years. Participants were given the
affect whether personality change is observed. In his NEOPersonalityInventory,whichmeasurestheBigFive
classicworkaboutthechildrenoftheGreatDepression, basicpersonalitytraits.Inthisandotherwork,theyhave
Elderdemonstratedhowhistoricaleventsaffectpeople’s foundmoderatetohighrank-orderconsistencyforper-
personalities in different ways depending on their life sonalitytraitsacrosstimeintervalsof5to6years.Costa
stages. Elder found personality change for middle-aged and McCrae interpreted their results as indicating that
meninreactiontotheDepression.Personalitycontinuity
personalitydoesnotchange,exceptintrivialways,after
was more often found for younger men because these theageof30.
men were able to seize newly emerging opportunities Other researchers espousing the individual differ-
after the Depression. However, conclusions about per- ences approach, such as Conley, have also found a
sonalitydevelopmentwereconfoundedwithindividuals’ great deal of stability in personality across adult-
birthcohorts;thus,itwasunknownwhetherthefindings hood. Using a different self-report personality measure
werearesultofmaturationalchange,thetimeoftesting as part of the Kelly Longitudinal Study, Conley
andhistoricalinfluences,ortheparticipants’generations. and colleagues found that certain personality traits,
Schaie developed the cohort-sequential design to tease
such as neuroticism, social introversion–extraversion,
aparttheeffectsofthesefactors,yetthiselaboratedesign and impulse control, demonstrated fairly stable pat-
is rarely used. In sum, longitudinal studies, although terns across 25- and even 40-year time intervals.
offering the most comprehensive picture of personality Focusing on late life, Troll and Skaff found conti-
development,canbelimitedaboutpersonalitycontinuity nuity in self-concept in the oldest old (85 years of
and change. Thus, when reviewing empirical results re- age or over). Participants were asked how they
garding personality across adulthood in the section that thought they had changed over the years and how
follows, one should pay close attention to the types of they had remained the same. These older adults
continuityfoundandthemethodsemployed.
reported that their core self-concept had remained
stable over the years, and their self-descriptors were
also relatively consistent. In sum, for different mea-
s0045 2.3. Major Findings
sures used to assess personality, there seems to be
Table I summarizes the types of continuity and differential consistency of personality during adult-
change evident in research on personality in late life, hood and late life.
t0005 TABLEI
SummaryofPersonalityinLateLife:TypesofContinuity,TypicalMethods,andEmpiricalResults
Typesofcontinuity Typicalmethods Empiricalresults
Differential Rank-orderconsistency Stability:ranksofpersonalitycharacteristicsrelativelystableinlate
continuity life
Absolute Meanlevels Change:decreasesinneuroticism,increasesinagreeableness,
continuity decreasesandmaintenanceinextraversioninolderadults
Ipsative Intraindividualdifferencesand Stabilityandchange:growth,stability,anddecreasesinpersonality
continuity variability characteristicswithinindividuals