Emerging Trends in Drug Use and Distribution PDF
Preview Emerging Trends in Drug Use and Distribution
SpringerBriefs in Criminology Forfurthervolumes: http://www.springer.com/series/10159 David N. Khey • John Stogner (cid:129) Bryan Lee Miller Emerging Trends in Drug Use and Distribution Volume 12 2123 DavidN.Khey BryanLeeMiller DepartmentofCriminalJustice DeptofCriminalJusticeandCriminology LoyolaUniversityNewOrleans GeorgiaSouthernUniversity NewOrleans Statesboro Louisiana Georgia USA USA JohnStogner Dept.ofCriminalJustice UniversityofNorthCarolinaCharlotte Charlotte USA ISSN2192-8533 ISSN2192-8541(electronic) ISBN978-3-319-03574-1 ISBN978-3-319-03575-8(eBook) DOI10.1007/978-3-319-03575-8 SpringerChamHeidelbergNewYorkDordrechtLondon LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2013954904 © SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2014 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartofthe materialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation, broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformation storageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodology nowknownorhereafterdeveloped.Exemptedfromthislegalreservationarebriefexcerptsinconnection withreviewsorscholarlyanalysisormaterialsuppliedspecificallyforthepurposeofbeingenteredand executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. 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Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Preface Cannabinoidsarethecrisisofthedecade Evrenetal.2013 Concernsovertheincreaseduseofemergingdrugs—especiallyamongteenagers— have captured the attention of the media, legislatures, and local communities. However, there has been a great deal of misinformation, sensationalistic journal- ism, and uncertainty in regards to these sorts of substances. Policy-makers have recentlyerredonthesideofcautionbytakingstridestobanthesesubstancesshortly afterafirstmentionofthemintheheadlines.Manypublichealthexpertsseemingly failtounderstandthebroaderpatternsofemergingdruguse,particularlyincontext ofawealthofpreviouscasesandpatternsseenoverthelastcentury.Withtheincreas- ingnumberofcurrentcasesrequiringgovernmentalandpublichealthintervention, we wish to arm decision-makers with a comprehensive guide on emerging drugs tomakeinformeddecisions.Wehopethattheywillbegintoseetheemergenceof newpsychoactivedrugsnotasuniqueoverwhelmingcrises,butaspatternedevents that may be managed. For students, researchers, and parents, we wish to provide a balanced source of information on this topic; but, most importantly, we wish to dispelthemisconceptionsandshinelightonactualizedproblemstogiveusaclear understandingoftheissuespertainingtoemergingdrugs. v Contents 1 NewTrendsinPsychoactiveDrugUse ............................ 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................... 1 1.2 DefiningEmergingDrugs.................................... 3 1.3 SourcesofEmergingDrugs .................................. 5 1.4 GeneralPatternsofUse...................................... 6 1.5 PublicHealthConcerns...................................... 7 1.6 DivergencefromFederalGuidanceandLaw .................... 9 1.7 SettingtheTone............................................ 10 References..................................................... 10 2 EmergingDrugs,TodayVersusYesteryear ........................ 13 2.1 PartitioningRecreationalDrugsfromMedicine.................. 13 2.1.1 Absinthe............................................ 14 2.1.2 LSD ............................................... 18 2.1.3 Quaalude ........................................... 21 2.1.4 MDMA,Ketamine,andGHB .......................... 23 2.2 DrugScaresandtheMedia................................... 25 2.3 CurrentTrends............................................. 26 2.3.1 NewlySynthesizedAnalogues ......................... 26 2.3.2 NewtoUs—Botanicals ............................... 28 2.3.3 NewTricksforOldDrugs ............................. 29 2.4 ConnectingthePasttothePresent............................. 30 References..................................................... 31 3 EmergingDrugTradeandUse:Manufacturing,Marketing, andUnderstandingNovelHighs ................................. 33 3.1 TheShadowIndustryProfitingfromEmergingDrugUse ......... 33 3.1.1 DrugDevelopmentandtheRegulateandReformulate Game .............................................. 35 3.1.2 DistributionandInternationalIssues .................... 37 3.2 TheSaleandMarketingofNovelDrugs........................ 38 3.2.1 OvertheCounterRetailSales .......................... 38 vii viii Contents 3.2.2 StreetDealersandBlackMarketDistribution............. 39 3.2.3 OnlineSales ........................................ 40 3.3 TheRoleoftheInternetintheSpreadofEmergingDrugs......... 42 3.4 ExplainingEmergingDrugUse............................... 43 3.4.1 TraditionalExplanationsofDrugUse ................... 44 3.4.2 EmergingDrugsasReplacementsforBannedSubstances... 46 3.4.3 EmergingDrugUseasaDeviantSocialMilestone ........ 47 References..................................................... 48 4 CaseStudiesof EmergingDrugs:Salvia,BathSalts, andBromo-DragonFly.......................................... 53 4.1 CaseStudy1:Salviadivinorum............................... 53 4.1.1 HistoricUseofSalvia ................................ 54 4.1.2 ModernSalviaUse................................... 54 4.1.3 MediaCoverageandRegulationofSalvia................ 55 4.1.4 TheScopeofSalviaUse .............................. 56 4.1.5 Salvia:AnInternetPhenomenon?....................... 58 4.1.6 TypologyofSalviaUsers.............................. 59 4.1.7 LessonsfromSalviaUseintheUSA .................... 61 4.2 CaseStudy2:SyntheticStimulantsCalled“BathSalts”........... 61 4.2.1 BathSaltsandtheBody............................... 62 4.2.2 TheEmergenceofBathSaltUse ....................... 63 4.2.3 USMediaandCulturalPanicsLinkedtoBathSaltUse..... 65 4.2.4 RegulationofBathSaltsandResults .................... 66 4.2.5 LessonsfromBathSaltsandtheFuture.................. 67 4.3 CaseStudy3:Bromo-DragonFly,aPowerfulHallucinogen........ 68 References..................................................... 70 5 WhatIsBeingDoneAboutEmergingDrugs? ..................... 75 5.1 TheControlledSubstancesAct ............................... 75 5.1.1 EmergencySchedulingPowers......................... 76 5.1.2 ControlledSubstanceAnalogues........................ 77 5.1.3 FoodandDrugAdministration ......................... 78 5.2 AMoveAwayfromtheCSA ................................. 79 5.2.1 State-LevelMedicalizationofMarijuana................. 80 5.2.2 Salviadivinorum,Kratom,andotherStateLevelBans ..... 80 5.3 SyntheticCannabinoids,BathSalts,andtheSynthetic DrugAbusePreventionActof2012 ........................... 83 5.4 InternationalRegulationsofEmergingDrugs ................... 84 5.5 LawEnforcementandInterdiction ............................ 84 5.6 ProsecutingEmergingDrugCases ............................ 87 5.7 CrimeLabandDrugTesting ................................. 88 5.8 EmergingDrugPrevention................................... 89 5.9 FutureDirections........................................... 90 References..................................................... 92 Index ............................................................ 95 Chapter 1 New Trends in Psychoactive Drug Use Over the past two decades in particular, there has been increasing concern over a subsetofpsychoactivesubstancesnewonthedrugscene.Whilesomehavereceived a substantial amount of media coverage in recent years, many of these substances areunheardofbythevastpopulous;infact,onlyanichegroupofdrugusersmay knowoftheirexistenceprevioustotheireventualexposuretothepublic.Thereis, however, a good base for understanding these emerging drugs as presented in this chapter.Aframeworkispresentedtobettergrapplewithemergingdrugtrendsgiven thisknowledgebase.Thisprovidesasolidfoundationtoexpandonpreviousresearch whileminimizingthetemptationofincludinganecdotalandcircumstantialevidence whendrawingconclusionsonemergingdrugtrends. 1.1 Introduction Tosaytheleast,emergingdrugshavecapturedashareofmediaheadlinesinrecent years.Thelitanyofstorieshasrangedfromreportsofcelebrityuseandreviewsof legalchangestofear-mongeringpiecesaboutepidemicuseamongteenagersandthe drugs’close connections with criminal activity and bizarre behavior. Members of mainstreamAmerica seem to know of these drugs only as a result of a handful of over-sensationalizedcasesinthemedia. Aperfectcaseinpointwastheintensemedia interestinthevideotapedepictingpopularmusicianMileyCyrus“trippingout”after smokingtheplantSalviadivinorum(Detrick2010).Thecoverageofthisleakedclip rapidlyelevatedtheawarenessofsalviaamongtheAmericanpublic,astheuntimely deathofBrettChidesterhadyearsbefore(Griffinetal.2008).In2006,the17-year-old took his own life, and salvia use was officially listed on the death certificate as a contributingcauseofdeath.Ortakethecaseofaward-winningactressDemiMoore: After experiencing complications and convulsions attributed to smoking synthetic cannabinoids, she was rushed to the hospital and treated for drug poisoning.As a result,reportsofcannabinoidissuesincreasedmanyfoldacrossthenationandmedia consumers were exposed to the “wild dangers” of a new and emerging drug trend (Dillon 2012). Perhaps receiving the most attention was the incredible story of a drug-crazed, zombie-like attack on an unsuspecting Florida man in 2012. Despite D.N.Kheyetal.,EmergingTrendsinDrugUseandDistribution, 1 SpringerBriefsinCriminology12,DOI10.1007/978-3-319-03575-8_1, ©SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2014 2 1 NewTrendsinPsychoactiveDrugUse the subsequent confirmation of the lack of synthetic cathinones in Rudy Eugene’s systematthetimeofhisviolentandcannibalisticattackonRonaldPoppoinsouthern Florida (Hiaasen and Green 2012), manyAmericans still associate bath salts with cannibalism as a result of the extensive media coverage and gross misreporting of theincident. Thoughthefearandanxietiesrelatedtonewandemergingdrugsseemtobebased onafewisolatedincidentsandinaccurateinformation,thiscertainlydoesnotmean that those concerns are inappropriate. Quite to the contrary, and as the following chapters will demonstrate, some of the recently emerging drugs represent a clear threattopublichealthandshouldbethefocusofregulationandintenseconcerted effortofemergencymedicine,treatmentprofessionals,lawenforcement(particularly asrelatedtointerdiction),andcustomsandpostalinspectors.However,inorderto best manage the appearance of new drug trends and new substances, a better and moreanalyticapproachtotheemergingdrugproblemmustbeundertaken. Rather thanreactwithpanicandengageinknee-jerkreactions,aninformedsocietyshould focus on gathering facts about novel substances’pharmacology, effects, use pat- terns, distribution, andrisk-potential. Importantly, aneducatedsocietyshouldalso considerthesocialdynamicsthatledtothedrugs’emergence.Doingsowillgiveus awindowintoanemergingdrug’spotentialforproblematicand/ordangeroususe. For example, if we know that a new substance is being primarily used in the club scene, there may be potential for this substance to be combined with other drugs (ecstasy,LSD,andperhapsalcohol)—whichmayleadtounintendedconsequences. Further,policymakersshouldavoidoutrightbansonthesesubstancesuntiltheyex- plorethefullramificationsoftheseactions.Thisincludestheeffectofregulationon lawenforcement(suchascostanddistractionfromlargerconcerns),thepotentialfor “legalhigh”manufacturerstoreplaceabannedsubstancewithamoredangerousor addictingunregulatedformulationofthedrug,andwhetheruserswillreverttomore dangerous street drugs. There are also various other tools available to legislatures, publichealthandjusticeprofessionals,andothersinvolvedtomitigatetheproblems ofnovelsubstances, minimizeuse(particularlyproblemuse), andoptimizepublic resourcesavailabletoaddresstheseproblems.Alternativeapproachestoanimme- diateoutrightbanalsoallowmorelatitudetoresearchersininvestigatingpotential therapeuticagentsandreducesthelikelihoodthatthesesubstanceswillbemiredin thetypicalstigmaattachedto“illicitdrugs,”“drugsofabuse,”or“illegaldrugs.” The following chapters offer insight into the emerging drug phenomenon in an attempt to assist readers in reaching valid conclusions and inspire thoughtful re- searchinthearea.Theystressthatwhilemanypsychoactivesubstancesarenewto recreationaluse(includingmostofthosethatserveasexampleswithinthetext),the phenomenonofemergingdrugsisnot.Modernsocietieshavestruggledtomanage numeroussubstanceshypedasthe“nextscarydrug”formanydecades. Chapter2 offersseveralexamplesofthemanagementofhistoricalemergingdrug“threats”and outlineshowsomeofthesedrugsbecameapermanentpartoftoday’sdruglandscape whileothersfellfrompopularuse.Thechapterthenintroducessomeprominentcon- temporaryemergingdrugissuesandmakesclearthesimilaritiesofpastandpresent emergingdrugnarratives.Bypresentingtheinformationinthisway,weemphasize 1.2 DefiningEmergingDrugs 3 that it is not so much the drugs themselves that are critically important relative to the societal and cultural factors that shape these narratives. Readers should utilize thisbalancedandhistoricallygroundedapproachtoaugmenttherecentfocusonthe chemicalspecificsofthesedrugs. Inparticular, understandingtheprocessthrough whichnewdrugsaredeveloped,introduced,marketed,promoted,reportedon,regu- lated,andbecomethesubjectoflawenforcementandregulatoryeffortswillenhance readers’understandingrelatedtoallnewdrugsandservethembetterthanafocuson asingledrug’schemicalcomposition.Thepatternsseenintoday’semergingdrugs repeatthoseofhistoricemergingdrugsandwilllikelyberepeatedinthefuturewith new substances and new forms of existing drugs. As a result, understanding the emergenceofthesedrugswillhelpreaderspredicttheevolutionintheuseofnew drugsreachingthemarketinfuture. 1.2 DefiningEmergingDrugs Atpresent,thereseemstobeasmuchinconsistencywithlabelingandcategorizing emerging drugs as there is with regulating and reacting to the substances. Deter- miningtheappropriatenomenclatureandtaxonomyforthesesubstancesthathave onlyrecentlybeenusedforrecreationalpurposesistrickyinthatthesedrugsvary in terms of their origin, psychoactive effects, legality, and distribution. Unlike the traditional categorizations of drugs as stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and so forth, each of these substances are evolving in use in a similar way rather than sharingaclusterofpsychologicalandphysiologicaleffects.However,theircollec- tive grouping serves a clear purpose. They may be linked to similar portions of a “shadowindustry”andtheirmanufacturersmayutilizesimilarpracticestoskirtthe law and reach consumers. Even law enforcement and public health officials have limitedknowledgeoftheirpharmacologicaleffectsandmaythinkofeachofthese substances as “one of those new drugs.” With evolution being their unifying trait, determiningwhichsubstancesshouldbeplacedinthisframeworkischallengingin thatseveralfeaturesofadrugitselfanditsusepatternsmaybeactivelychanging. This could include new formulations, new marketing techniques, altered routes of administration,orotherchanges. In recent years, the term “legal highs” was employed to describe several of the substancesthatweconsideremergingdrugs,particularlybythemedia;thistermalso carriedovertoseveralrecentacademicstudies(e.g.,Brandtetal.2010;Arunotayanun and Gibbons 2012; Davies et al. 2010). As Corazza et al. (2012) point out, it is inappropriatetoapplythe“legal”labelsinceasubstance’slegalitymaychangesoon after its emergence and legal status can vary across jurisdictions. Further, many substancesmayinitiallyexistinalegal“grayarea”inthattheirlegalityorillegality may be contingent on an administrative ruling that determines if a substance in question is similar enough to a currently banned substance to be considered an analogue;thatis,manynationshavecreatedlawstoregulatesubstanceswhichare chemicallyandfunctionallyrelatedtoanexistingcontrolledsubstance.Additionally,
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