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Dharma Prakash Agrawal Embedded Sensor Systems Embedded Sensor Systems Dharma Prakash Agrawal Embedded Sensor Systems 123 Dharma PrakashAgrawal EECSDepartment, Centerfor Distributed andMobileComputing University of Cincinnati Cincinnati, OH USA ISBN978-981-10-3037-6 ISBN978-981-10-3038-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-3038-3 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2016962036 ©SpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd.2017 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfrom therelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty,expressorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinor for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. Printedonacid-freepaper ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbySpringerNature TheregisteredcompanyisSpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd. Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:152BeachRoad,#22-06/08GatewayEast,Singapore189721,Singapore To my wife Purnima Agrawal Dharma Prakash Agrawal Preface Sensor systems have been around for quite some time, and their obvious use in thermometer has gone unnoticed until recently. Their unique capability of moni- toring a given area has attracted attention, and sensors have been useful in numerousareas.Ienvisionedtheneedforthisbookseveralyearsagowhenstarted offering such a course. During the last four years, I collected papers on wireless sensornetworks(WSNs)andpreparedpptfilesfromthemtodeliverlectures.Iwas fortunatetobeinvitedasaGIANspeakerattheIITKharagpurinsummer2015,a premier institute in India. This encouraged me to write two chapters every week whenIofferedthiscourseagainattheUniversityofCincinnatiagainduringspring 2016. I was invited again to NIT Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India, to deliver lectures under GIAN program and that encouraged me to redraw all pdf-based diagrams in black and white ppts. After that, I also visited Wuxi, China, to get first-handinformationaboutGreenOrbsprojectandwasabletoaddthenewestinfo on large-scale WSN deployment. Within engineering and computer science disciplines, wireless sensor network has recently attracted unparalleled interest. In particular, combinations of wireless communication and tiny sensor devices have revolutionized the world of telecommunications. To fully explore and utilize this new technology, universities needtooffernewcoursesandtrainstudentsinthefieldsothattheycouldcontinue their graduate work in this area. However, the students in computer science and engineering (CSE) and electrical engineering (EE) are at best exposed to data communicationaspects,whilesensor-embeddedsystemsremainuntouched,asitis relatively difficult to learn about WSNs without having substantial background in wirelesscommunicationtechnology.Ontheotherhand,EEstudentslearnaboutthe radio frequency (RF) communication aspect only, and the topic of data commu- nication and computing system issues and their correlation in nomadic WSN remains untouched. I put in more efforts in streamlining all the chapters after my return to the USA in July 2016. ManyinstitutionsoffercourseinWSNarea,primarilyforgraduatestudents,and thenonlyasspecialtopics.AlthoughtherearemanyeditedbooksrelatedtoWSNs, these books can be roughly classified into two groups. The first group focuses on vii viii Preface readers in specific application areas, and the other covers only the general knowledge of environmental monitoring. The books in the first group require a detailed background inRF communication and signal processing and therefore are notsuitableforstudentsinCSE.Manyrecenttextsemphasizemicrowaveradarand sensorsystems.However,thebooksinthesecond group donotprovideanydepth in the data communication aspects of the technology. Creating such a unique instructional curriculum requires a great deal of efforts. Planningsuchatextisarelativelydifficulttaskbecauseofthediversebackground requirements. The limitations of most existing books and courses affect the sensor industries in the USA. Companies must train newly hired college graduates for a long time before they can get into WSNs. To the best of our knowledge, such an organizedcourse isnotbeen taught anywhere intheworld.Teaching WSN course strictly from research papers is difficult for the professor, which in turn causes students to learn the material inefficiently. Preparing systematic notes in this emerging area will enhance training, increase the availability of well-educated personnel, shorten the new employee training period within industries, and allow nations to continue to advance the research in this technological field. This book explains how a WSN works in monitoring a given environment. I have selected chapter topics that focus on qualitative descriptions and realistic explanations of relationships between WSNs and performance parameters. Mathematical formulations are needed in engineering and computer science work, andweincludesomeoftheimportantconceptssothatstudentscanappreciatetheir usefulness in numerous WSNs. In all these applications, both security and privacy issues are important. The chapters are organized to provide a great deal of flexi- bility; emphasis can be given on different chapters, depending on the scope of the course and the instructor’s own interests or emphasis. In this textbook, I have tried to provide an overview of the basic principles behind WSNs and associated support infrastructure. A list of possible group sim- ulationprojectsisincluded.Theauthorhastriedsuchprojectsforseveralyearsand has found them highly effective in training students. This book is written both for academicinstitutionsandforworkingprofessionals.Itcanbeusedasatextbookfor a one-semester or a one-quarter course. This book also can be used for training current or new employees of companies and could be adopted for short-term trainingcourses.IhopeIhavebeenabletoachieveourgoalofhelpingstudentsand others working in this area to have a detailed knowledge about this exciting technology. Cincinnati, OH, USA Dharma Prakash Agrawal Acknowledgements Thisprojectwouldhavenotbeenpossiblewithouthelpfromnumerousindividuals. Therefore, the authors would like to acknowledge the time and effort put in by all past and present members of our Research Center for Distributed and Mobile ComputingattheUniversityofCincinnati.SpecialsincerethanksareduetoPallavi Meharia, Hailong Li, Amitabh Mishra, Suryadip Chakraborty, Aparna Venkataraman, Abhinav Prakash, and Peter Jun for letting me use their research results in some chapters. Thanks are also due to my wife for her patience and dedication. I am very grateful to Swati Meherishi, my editor at Springer, for per- suading and convincing me to communicate with Springer for the possible publi- cationofthisbooksoquickly.Theauthorwelcomesanycommentsandsuggestions forimprovementsorchangesthatcouldbeincorporatedintheforthcomingeditions of this book. Please contact me at [email protected]. Dharma Prakash Agrawal ix Contents Part I General Sensor Characteristics 1 Introduction to Cell Phones and Wireless Technologies .. ..... .. 3 1.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 3 1.2 MS Obtaining Traffic Channels from BS.. .... .... ..... .. 9 1.3 Multiplexing Schemes Used by a BS for Traffic Channels.. .. 9 1.4 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Access. ..... .. 13 1.5 Directional Antenna and SDMA .... .... .... .... ..... .. 13 1.6 Cellular Transmission..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 14 1.6.1 Cellular Coverage Area for Traffic Channels ..... .. 15 1.6.2 Signal Strength in Cellular Area.. .... .... ..... .. 18 1.6.3 Roaming Support . .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 19 1.7 Access to Control Channels.... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 20 1.8 Different Wireless Technologies. .... .... .... .... ..... .. 27 1.9 Access Points.. .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 28 1.10 Sensor Networks ... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 29 1.11 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 32 1.12 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 32 References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 34 2 Applications of Sensor Networks. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 35 2.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 35 2.2 Applications of WSNs.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 37 2.2.1 Defense Applications of WSNs... .... .... ..... .. 39 2.3 Civilian Applications ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 46 2.3.1 Weather Monitoring Applications. .... .... ..... .. 46 2.3.2 Precision Agriculture Applications .... .... ..... .. 50 2.3.3 Echo System Monitoring Applications . .... ..... .. 52 2.3.4 Biomedical Applications.... .... .... .... ..... .. 55 2.3.5 Other Applications .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 61 2.4 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 62 xi xii Contents 2.5 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 62 References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 62 3 Different Types of Transducers.. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 65 3.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 65 3.2 Types of Transducers..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 68 3.3 Temperature Transducers.. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 72 3.4 Gas Transducers.... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 73 3.5 Capacitive Transducers.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 75 3.5.1 Proximity Transducers . .... .... .... .... ..... .. 76 3.6 Fluid-Level Transducers... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 77 3.7 Humidity Transducers .... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 78 3.7.1 Inductive Transducers.. .... .... .... .... ..... .. 82 3.8 Magnetometer Transducers. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 85 3.9 Optical and Underwater Transducers . .... .... .... ..... .. 85 3.9.1 Underwater Acoustic Transducers. .... .... ..... .. 87 3.10 Strain and Biomedical Transducers .. .... .... .... ..... .. 88 3.10.1 Pressure Transducers... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 88 3.11 Radiation Transducers .... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 91 3.12 Transducers for Biomedical Applications.. .... .... ..... .. 96 3.13 Conclusion.... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 102 3.14 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 102 References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 103 4 Transducers’ Range Modeling... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 105 4.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 105 4.2 Modeling of a Transducers’ Sensing Range.... .... ..... .. 107 4.3 Modeling of Camera Transducers’ (C-SN) Sensing Range.. .. 116 4.4 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 119 4.5 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 119 References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 120 5 Clock Synchronization and Localization... .... .... .... ..... .. 121 5.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 121 5.2 Clock and Signal Propagation in a WSN.. .... .... ..... .. 123 5.3 Localization of a SN ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 129 5.4 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 136 5.5 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 137 References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 138 6 Topology Discovery, Residual Energy, and Energy Harvesting . .. 139 6.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 139 6.2 Neighbor Determination and Hop Distance .... .... ..... .. 141 6.3 MAC Protocols .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 142 6.4 Residual Energy Mapping . .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 144 6.5 Routing with Energy Harvesting .... .... .... .... ..... .. 147

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