Elementary Flight Dynamics with an Introduction to Bifurcation and Continuation Methods Elementary Flight Dynamics with an Introduction to Bifurcation and Continuation Methods Second Edition Nandan K. Sinha N. Ananthkrishnan Second edition published 2022 by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 and by CRC Press 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN © 2022 Nandan K Sinha and N. Ananthkrishnan First edition published by CRC Press 2014 CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and pub- lisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. 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ISBN: 978-0-367-56207-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-56211-3 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-09680-1 (ebk) DOI: 10.1201/9781003096801 Typeset in Times by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd. Contents Preface.......................................................................................................................xi Authors ...................................................................................................................xiii Chapter 1 Introduction ..........................................................................................1 1.1 What, Why and How? ...............................................................1 1.2 Aircraft as a Rigid Body ...........................................................2 1.3 Six Degrees of Freedom ............................................................7 1.4 Position, Velocity and Angles ..................................................10 1.5 Aircraft Motion in Wind .........................................................14 1.6 Longitudinal Flight Dynamics ................................................18 1.7 Longitudinal Dynamics Equations ..........................................20 1.8 A Question of Timescales .......................................................22 1.9 Longitudinal Trim ...................................................................24 1.10 Aerodynamic Coefficients C , C , C .....................................27 D L m 1.10.1 Aerodynamic Coefficients with Angle of Attack (α) ...............................................................29 1.10.2 Aerodynamic Coefficients with Mach Number (Ma) ..............................................................31 1.11 Wing–Body Trim .....................................................................33 Exercise Problems ..............................................................................39 References ..........................................................................................41 Chapter 2 Stability Concept ................................................................................43 2.1 Linear First-Order System .......................................................43 2.2 Linear Second-Order System ..................................................46 2.3 Non-Linear Second-Order System ..........................................55 2.4 Pitch Dynamics about Level Flight Trim ................................56 2.5 Modelling Small-Perturbation Aerodynamics ........................58 2.6 Pitch Dynamics about Level Flight Trim (Contd.) ..................62 2.6.1 Numerical Example ....................................................63 2.7 Short-Period Frequency and Damping ....................................67 2.8 Forced Response ......................................................................67 2.8.1 First-Order System .....................................................68 2.8.2 Second-Order System .................................................71 2.9 Response to Pitch Control .......................................................75 2.9.1 Pitch Dynamics about Level Flight Trim with Elevator Control .........................................................77 Exercise Problems ..............................................................................78 v vi Contents Chapter 3 Longitudinal Trim and Stability.........................................................81 3.1 Wing–Body Trim and Stability ...............................................81 3.2 Wing–Body Plus Tail: Physical Arguments ............................85 3.3 Wing–Body Plus Tail: Math Model.........................................86 3.3.1 Airplane Lift ..............................................................90 3.3.2 Airplane Pitching Moment .........................................92 3.4 Role of Downwash ...................................................................98 3.5 Neutral Point ............................................................................99 3.5.1 Static Margin ............................................................101 3.5.2 NP as Aerodynamic Centre of Entire Airplane .......101 3.6 Replacing V with V/ ............................................................103 H H 3.6.1 Revised Expressions for NP .....................................105 3.6.2 NP as Aerodynamic Centre of the Entire Airplane ....................................................................106 3.6.3 Trim and Stability, Again! ........................................107 3.7 Effect of CG Movement.........................................................109 3.8 Rear CG Limit due to Airplane Loading and Configuration at Take-Off .....................................................111 3.9 C , C Curves–Non-Linearities ............................................112 m L Exercise Problems ............................................................................114 Appendix 3.1 ....................................................................................118 Chapter 4 Longitudinal Control ........................................................................119 4.1 All-Moving Tail .....................................................................119 4.2 Elevator ..................................................................................121 4.3 Tail Lift with Elevator ...........................................................122 4.4 Airplane Lift Coefficient with Elevator.................................125 4.5 Airplane Pitching Moment Coefficient with Elevator ...........129 4.6 Elevator Influence on Trim and Stability ..............................131 4.6.1 Change in Trim Lift Coefficient ...............................132 4.6.2 Another Viewpoint of Stability ................................134 4.7 Longitudinal Manoeuvres with the Elevator .........................135 4.8 Most Forward CG Limit ........................................................141 4.8.1 Using Elevator to Compensate for CG Shift ............142 4.8.2 Typical Elevator Deflection Limits ..........................143 4.8.3 Forward-Most CG Limit due to Elevator Up-Deflection Limit .................................................145 4.9 Np Determination from Flight Tests .....................................145 4.10 Effect of NP Shift with Mach Number ..................................147 Exercise Problems ............................................................................150 References ........................................................................................152 Contents vii Chapter 5 Long-Period (Phugoid) Dynamics ....................................................153 5.1 Phugoid Mode Equations .......................................................153 5.2 Energy....................................................................................153 5.2.1 Normal Acceleration ................................................156 5.3 Phugoid Mode Physics ...........................................................157 5.4 Phugoid Small-Perturbation Equations .................................158 5.5 Aerodynamic Modelling with Mach Number .......................159 5.6 Phugoid Dynamics .................................................................161 5.7 Phugoid Mode Frequency and Damping ...............................163 5.8 Accurate Short-Period and Phugoid Approximations ...........165 5.8.1 Short-Period Mode Dynamics ..................................166 5.8.2 Phugoid Mode Dynamics .........................................167 5.9 Derivative C .....................................................................168 mMa 5.10 Derivative C in Pitching Motion .......................................169 mq1 5.11 Derivative C in Phugoid Motion ........................................172 mq1 5.12 Flow Curvature Effects .........................................................173 Exercise Problems ............................................................................174 References ........................................................................................176 Chapter 6 Lateral-Directional Motion ..............................................................177 6.1 Review ...................................................................................177 6.2 Directional Disturbance Angles ............................................177 6.3 Directional versus Longitudinal Flight .................................179 6.4 Lateral Disturbance Angles ...................................................181 6.5 Lateral-Directional Rate Variables ........................................183 6.6 Small-Perturbation Lateral-Directional Equations ...............184 6.7 Lateral-Directional Timescales .............................................187 6.8 Lateral-Directional Aerodynamic Derivatives ......................189 6.9 Lateral-Directional Small-Perturbation Equations (Contd.) .................................................................190 6.10 Lateral-Directional Dynamic Modes ....................................194 6.10.1 Roll (Rate) Mode ......................................................195 6.10.2 Dutch Roll Mode ......................................................196 6.10.3 Spiral Mode ..............................................................199 Exercise Problems ............................................................................201 Reference ..........................................................................................202 Chapter 7 Lateral-Directional Dynamic Modes ...............................................203 7.1 Roll (Rate) Mode ...................................................................203 7.2 Roll Damping Derivative C ................................................203 lp2 7.2.1 Special Case of Trapezoidal Wing ...........................205 7.2.2 Owing to Vertical Tail ..............................................207 viii Contents 7.3 Roll Control ...........................................................................208 7.4 Aileron Control Derivative, C ............................................212 lδa 7.4.1 Other Roll Control Devices ......................................215 7.4.1.1 Roll Control with Spoilers ........................216 7.4.1.2 Roll Control by Differential Tail ..............217 7.4.1.3 Roll Control by Rudder .............................217 7.5 Yaw Due To Roll Control ......................................................219 7.5.1 Yaw due to Aileron ...................................................219 7.5.2 Yaw due to Spoilers ..................................................220 7.5.3 Yaw due to Differential Tail .....................................221 7.5.4 Yaw due to Rudder ...................................................221 7.6 Aileron Input for a Bank Angle .............................................222 7.7 Dutch Roll Mode ...................................................................223 7.8 Directional Derivatives C and C ......................................228 Yβ nβ 7.8.1 Other Contributors to Yaw Stiffness ........................230 7.8.2 Loss of Vertical Tail Effectiveness...........................234 7.9 Lateral Derivative: C ...........................................................235 lβ 7.9.1 Wing Dihedral ..........................................................235 7.9.2 Other Sources of C .................................................238 lβ 7.9.2.1 Wing Sweep ..............................................239 7.9.2.2 Wing Vertical Position on Fuselage ..........241 7.9.2.3 Vertical Tail ..............................................242 7.10 Damping Derivatives: C and C ........................................244 nr1 lr1 7.10.1 Wing Contribution to C and C ...........................244 nr1 lr1 7.10.2 Vertical Tail Contribution to C and C ...............................................................246 nr1 lr1 7.11 Rudder Control ......................................................................248 7.11.1 Crosswind Landing ..................................................250 7.11.2 Other Rudder Trim Cases .........................................252 7.12 Spiral Mode ...........................................................................252 7.12.1 C and C Derivatives ...........................................254 nr2 lr2 7.12.2 Spiral Mode Stability ...............................................255 7.13 Real-Life Airplane Data ........................................................256 Exercise Problems ............................................................................257 References ........................................................................................267 Chapter 8 Computational Flight Dynamics ......................................................269 8.1 Aircraft Equations of Motion ................................................269 8.2 Derivation of Aircraft Equations of Motion ..........................269 8.2.1 Equations of the Translational Motion .....................270 8.3 3–2–1 Rule .............................................................................273 8.3.1 Euler Angles and Transformation ............................274 8.3.2 Kinematic Equations (Attitude and Position Dynamics) ................................................................278 Contents ix 8.3.2.1 Relation between Body Rates (p, q, r) and Euler Rates (ϕ˙ , θ˙, ψ˙) ..........................278 8.3.2.2 Relation between Inertial Velocity and Body-Axis Velocity Components .............280 8.3.2.3 Relation between Body-Fixed and Wind-Fixed Coordinates ..........................280 8.3.2.4 Relation between the Body-Axis and Wind-Axis Euler Angles ..........................282 8.3.2.5 Relation between the Body-Axis and Wind-Axis Angular Rates ........................283 8.3.3 Force Equations Summed Up ...................................285 8.3.3.1 Derivation of Force Equations in Wind-Fixed Axis System ..........................285 8.4 Derivation of Aircraft Equations of Motion (Contd.) ............289 8.4.1 Equations for the Rotational Motion ........................289 8.4.2 Symmetry of Aircraft ...............................................291 8.4.3 Sources of Nonlinearity ...........................................293 8.5 Numerical Analysis of Aircraft Motions ...............................295 8.5.1 Generalized Airplane Trim and Stability Analysis ....................................................................296 8.5.1.1 Local Dynamic Behaviour: Trim and Stability Analysis ......................................297 8.6 Standard Bifurcation Analysis ..............................................299 8.6.1 Application of SBA to F-18/HARV Dynamics ........302 8.6.1.1 Stall and Post-Stall Solutions ....................303 8.6.1.2 Roll Manoeuvres .......................................305 8.7 Extended Bifurcation Analysis (EBA) ..................................307 8.7.1 Straight and Level Flight Trim .................................308 8.7.2 Coordinated (Zero Sideslip) Level Turn Trim ..........313 8.7.3 Performance and Stability Analysis .........................315 8.7.3.1 Straight and Level Flight Trim .................316 8.7.3.2 Level Turn Manoeuvre .............................318 8.7.3.3 Maximum Roll Rate in a Roll Manoeuvre ................................................319 Exercise Problems ............................................................................322 Appendix 8.1: Small-Perturbation Equations (At Longitudinal Trim State) .................................................323 Appendix 8.2: F-18 Data ..................................................................325 Aerodynamic Data .................................................................325 Geometric and Other Data for F-18 .......................................326 Appendix 8.3: Equations and Aircraft Data Used for Roll Manoeuvre .............................................................................326 References ........................................................................................327