Electronics-from Classical to Quantum

343 Pages·2020·6.73 MB·\343

by  Michael Olorunfunmi Kolawole (Author)

Electronics

Electronics
From Classical to Quantum
Michael Olorunfunmi Kolawole
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Kolawole, Michael O., author.
Title: Electronics : from classical to quantum / Michael Olorunfunmi
Kolawole.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2020. | Includes
bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book discusses
formulation and classification of integrated circuits, develops
hierarchical structure of functional logic blocks to build more complex
digital logic circuits, outlines the structure of transistors, their
processing techniques, their arrangement forming logic gates and digital
circuits, optimal pass transistor stages of buffered chain, and
performance of designed circuits under noisy conditions. It also
outlines the principles of quantum electronics leading to the
development of lasers, masers, reversible quantum gates and circuits and
applications of quantum cells”— Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020011028 (print) | LCCN 2020011029 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367512224 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003052913 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Electronics. | Electronic circuits. | Quantum electronics.
Classification: LCC TK7815 .K64 2020 (print) | LCC TK7815 (ebook) | DDC
621.3815—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020011028
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020011029
ISBN: 978-0-367-51222-4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-05291-3 (ebk)
Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents
Preface...............................................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgment ...........................................................................................................................xiii
Author ..............................................................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 Formulation and Classification of Electronic Devices .................................................1
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................1
1.2 Basic Properties of Semiconductors ..................................................................1
1.2.1 Elements of Semiconductor ..................................................................5
1.2.2 Classification of ICs .............................................................................5
1.3 Design Phase .....................................................................................................7
1.4 M anufacturing Process ....................................................................................10
1.5 Wafer Fabrication ............................................................................................11
1.6 L ithography .....................................................................................................12
1.7 Device Formulation .........................................................................................15
1.7.1 Estimating IC Resistance and Capacitance and Uncertainty
of Fabrication......................................................................................18
1.7.1.1 Layout Resistance ...............................................................18
1.7.1.2 Layout Capacitance .............................................................20
1.7.1.3 Uncertainty of Fabrication ..................................................22
1.8 Summary .........................................................................................................24
Questions ....................................................................................................................25
References ..................................................................................................................25
Bibliography ...............................................................................................................26
Chapter 2 Functional Logics .......................................................................................................27
2.1 The Logic of a Switch .....................................................................................27
2.2 Primitive Logic and Composite Gates ............................................................30
2.2.1 Combinational and Sequential Logic Circuits ...................................35
2.3 Logic Circuits Design ......................................................................................43
2.3.1 Design Examples ................................................................................43
2.3.2 Binary Counter and Frequency Divider .............................................44
2.3.3 Encoder and Decoder .........................................................................47
2.3.4 Arithmetic Circuits .............................................................................52
2.3.5 Review of Binary Arithmetic .............................................................52
2.3.6 Binary Adder Circuits ........................................................................55
2.3.7 Ripple-Carry Adder ...........................................................................56
2.3.8 Binary Subtractor Circuits .................................................................57
2.3.9 Binary Multiplier Circuits ..................................................................58
2.3.10 Arithmetic Logic Unit ........................................................................62
2.4 Summary .........................................................................................................64
Problems .....................................................................................................................64
Bibliography ...............................................................................................................65
v
vi Contents
Chapter 3 Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor ....................................................................67
3.1 Constituents of a Transistor .............................................................................67
3.1.1 Field-Effect Transistor ........................................................................70
3.1.2 Transistor Forward-Active Mode Operation ......................................72
3.2 Diode Equation ................................................................................................72
3.2.1 Light-Emitting Diodes ........................................................................76
3.3 Transistor Characteristics ................................................................................77
3.3.1 Breakdown Mechanism ......................................................................81
3.4 Basic Transistor Applications ..........................................................................85
3.4.1 Switch .................................................................................................86
3.4.2 Biasing ................................................................................................89
3.4.2.1 DC Biasing Analysis ...........................................................90
3.4.2.2 AC Analysis ........................................................................92
3.5 BJT Small- and Large-Signal Models .............................................................93
3.5.1 Small-Signal Model ............................................................................93
3.5.2 Determining Resistances: r , r, and r...............................................94
π e o
3.5.3 H ybrid-π Model ..................................................................................96
3.5.3.1 Amplification Factor ...........................................................97
3.5.4 T-Model ..............................................................................................98
3.5.4.1 Impact of Coupling Capacitors .........................................100
3.5.4.2 Small-Signal Model for Large Frequency ........................102
3.5.4.3 Selection of Coupling and Bypass Capacitors ..................104
3.5.5 Large-Signal Model..........................................................................109
3.5.6 Large-Signal Model in Saturation ....................................................109
3.5.7 Ebers–Moll Model ...........................................................................110
3.6 Stability Factor ..............................................................................................111
3.7 Power Dissipation and Efficiency ..................................................................116
3.8 Time-Base Generator.....................................................................................119
3.9 Summary .......................................................................................................121
Problems ...................................................................................................................122
References ................................................................................................................125
Chapter 4 Operational Amplifiers .............................................................................................127
4.1 Basic Amplifier Definitions ...........................................................................127
4.2 Amplifier Gain ...............................................................................................128
4.2.1 Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics .........................................................129
4.2.1.1 Non-Inverting Amplifier ...................................................130
4.2.1.2 Buffer Amplifier ...............................................................133
4.2.1.3 Inverting Amplifier ...........................................................133
4.2.2 Examples of Inverting Amplifier Circuit Analyses ..........................137
4.2.3 Voltage and Power Amplifiers ..........................................................140
4.2.3.1 Operation Circuit ..............................................................140
4.2.4 Summing and Averaging Amplifiers ...............................................142
4.2.5 Comparator Amplifier and Schmitt Trigger .....................................143
4.2.6 Transfer Function: A Review ...........................................................145
4.2.7 Differentiator Amplifier ...................................................................148
4.2.8 Integrator Amplifier .........................................................................149
4.3 Time-Base Generators ...................................................................................151
4.3.1 Oscillators and Multivibrators ..........................................................151
4.3.1.1 Basic Oscillator .................................................................151
Contents vii
4.3.2 Relaxation Oscillator (or Square Wave Generator) ..........................152
4.3.3 Monostable Multivibrator .................................................................155
4.3.4 Triangle Wave Generator..................................................................156
4.3.5 Sine Wave Oscillator Circuits ..........................................................157
4.3.5.1 Wein Bridge Oscillator .....................................................157
4.3.5.2 Phase-Shift Oscillator .......................................................162
4.3.5.3 Crystal Oscillator ..............................................................165
4.3.5.4 Pierce Oscillator ...............................................................169
4.3.5.5 Miller Effect .....................................................................170
4.4 Summary .......................................................................................................171
Problems ...................................................................................................................171
References ................................................................................................................172
Chapter 5 MOS Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) Circuits ...................................................173
5.1 Basic Structure of MOSFET .........................................................................174
5.2 MOSFET Characteristics ..............................................................................177
5.3 MOSFET’s Small-Signal and Large-Signal Models .....................................186
5.3.1 Small-Signal Model for MOSFET ...................................................186
5.3.2 MOSFET Device Capacitances ........................................................189
5.3.3 Large-Signal Model of MOSFET ....................................................199
5.3.4 MOSFET Logic Circuits ..................................................................199
5.4 S ummary .......................................................................................................201
Problems ...................................................................................................................202
References ................................................................................................................203
Bibliography .............................................................................................................203
Chapter 6 CMOS Circuits .........................................................................................................205
6.1 Noise ..............................................................................................................205
6.2 CMOS Basic Structure ..................................................................................207
6.2.1 Implementing CMOS Logic Circuits ...............................................209
6.2.1.1 Dynamic Behavior of CMOS Inverter ..............................214
6.2.1.2 NOR ..................................................................................218
6.2.1.3 NAND ...............................................................................219
6.2.1.4 CMOS SR Flip-Flops .......................................................219
6.2.1.5 Ratioed Logic ...................................................................221
6.2.1.6 Complex CMOS Logic Circuits........................................222
6.2.1.7 L ayout of CMOS Logics ...................................................224
6.3 Dynamic CMOS logic ...................................................................................225
6.3.1 Issues with CMOS as Electronic Switch ..........................................228
6.3.2 Propagation Delay of a Chain of Transmission (Pass) Gates ...........233
6.4 Large-Scale Integration and Fabrication of CMOS Transistors ....................236
6.5 Summary .......................................................................................................237
Problems ...................................................................................................................237
References ................................................................................................................238
Bibliography .............................................................................................................239
Chapter 7 Data Conversion Process ..........................................................................................241
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................241
7.2 S ampling Theorem ........................................................................................243
viii Contents
7.3 Quantization Process .....................................................................................244
7.4 ADC and DAC ...............................................................................................245
7.4.1 A/D Conversion Circuits ..................................................................246
7.4.2 Flash or Parallel ADC ......................................................................247
7.4.3 The Charge-Redistribution Converter ..............................................249
7.4.3.1 Basic Concept of S/H ........................................................249
7.4.3.2 Charge-Redistribution Successive Approximation ...........251
7.4.4 D/A Conversion Techniques .............................................................254
7.5 Summary .......................................................................................................259
Problems ...................................................................................................................260
References ................................................................................................................260
Chapter 8 Nanomaterials, Nanoelectronics, and Nanofabrication Technology ........................261
8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................261
8.2 Nanomaterials ................................................................................................261
8.3 Nanoelectronics .............................................................................................264
8.4 Nanofabrication .............................................................................................267
8.5 Summary .......................................................................................................268
Problems ...................................................................................................................268
References ................................................................................................................268
Chapter 9 Elements of Quantum Electronics ............................................................................271
9.1 Introduction to Basic Quantum Principles ....................................................271
9.1.1 What Is a Qubit? ...............................................................................272
9.1.2 What Is Quantum Coherence? .........................................................273
9.2 Associated Operators of Spins and Angular Momentum: An Overview ......275
9.2.1 Axioms and Vector Spaces ...............................................................278
9.2.2 Product Spaces .................................................................................280
9.2.3 Qubits in State Space .......................................................................284
9.3 Quantum Electronics: What Is It? .................................................................285
9.4 Quantum Gates and Circuits .........................................................................289
9.4.1 Elementary Quantum Logic Gates ...................................................291
9.4.1.1 Buffer and NOT Gates ......................................................291
9.4.1.2 XOR Gates (CNOT or C-NOT Gates) ..............................294
9.4.1.3 OR, AND, and NAND Gates ...........................................295
9.4.2 Quantum Circuits .............................................................................299
9.4.2.1 Adders ...............................................................................299
9.4.2.2 Q uantum Comparator Circuits .........................................301
9.4.2.3 Quantum Multiplier Circuits ............................................302
9.4.3 Quantum Error-Correction Scheme .................................................303
9.4.3.1 But How Do We Describe a Quantum Error? ..................303
9.4.4 Q uantum Cryptography ...................................................................306
9.4.4.1 How Do We Exchange Cryptographic Keys? ...................306
9.5 Fabrication of Quantum Gates ......................................................................307
9.5.1 T unnel Junctions ...............................................................................307
9.5.2 Quantum-Dot Cellular Automata .....................................................308
9.5.2.1 Q CA Basics .......................................................................308
9.5.2.2 QCA Gates ........................................................................310
Contents ix
9.5.2.3 QCA Circuits ....................................................................312
9.5.2.4 Fabrication of QCA Circuits .............................................313
9.6 Summary .......................................................................................................314
Problems ...................................................................................................................314
References ................................................................................................................315
Appendix A: Notations ................................................................................................................317
Appendix B: Glossary of Terms .................................................................................................321
Index ..............................................................................................................................................325