Electronic Devices on Discrete Components for Industrial and Power Engineering PDF
Preview Electronic Devices on Discrete Components for Industrial and Power Engineering
Electronic Devices on Discrete Components for Industrial and Power Engineering © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 69828_FM.indd 1 12/17/07 10:49:52 AM Electronic Devices on Discrete Components for Industrial and Power Engineering Vladimir Gurevich Israel Electric Corp, Haifa Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 69828_FM.indd 3 12/17/07 10:49:52 AM CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-6982-2 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reason- able efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. 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CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 69828_FM.indd 4 12/17/07 10:49:52 AM ⎡ ⎤ Author Vladimir Gurevich was born in Kharkov, Ukraine, in 1956. He re- ceived an M.S.E.E. degree (1978) at the Kharkov TechnicalUniversity, named after P. Vasilenko, and a Ph.D. degree (1986) at Kharkov Na- tional Polytechnic University. His employment experience includes: teacher, assistant professor and associate professor at Kharkov Techni- cal University, and chief engineer and director of Inventor, Ltd. In 1994, he arrived in Israel and works today at Israel Electric Corp. as a specialist of the Central Electric Laboratory. He is the author of more than 140 professionalpapers and 4 books and holder ofnearly 120 pat- ents inthe field ofelectricalengineering and power electronics. In2006 he was Honorable Professor with the Kharkov Technical University, and since 2007 he has served as anexpert withthe TC-94 Committee of InternationalElectrotechnicalCommission. vii © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ⎡ ⎤ Contents Preface v 1 Solid-StateElectronicsElements.. ...... ...... ...... .... 1 1.1 SemiconductingMaterialsandp-n-Junction..... ...... .. 1 1.2 TheTransistor’sPrinciple... ..... ...... ...... ...... .. 7 1.3 SomeTransistorKinds ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... 9 1.4 BipolarTransistorGeneralModes..... ..... ...... ..... 18 1.5 TransistorDevicesinSwitchingMode . ...... ...... .... 24 1.6 Thyristors. ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... .... 31 1.7 ControlofThyristorsonDirectCurrent. ...... ...... ... 39 1.8 ControlofThyristorsonAlternatingCurrent..... ...... . 43 1.9 Diac,Triac,Quadrac ... ...... ...... ...... ...... ... . 44 2 ReedSwitches... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... . 49 2.1 WhatIsIt?..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... .... 49 2.2 PolarizedandMemoryReedSwitches ... ...... ..... .. . 54 2.3 PowerReedSwitches . ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... 60 3 High-VoltageReedRelays.. ...... ..... ...... ...... . .. . 63 3.1 HVReedRelaysforLowCurrentDCCircuits..... ...... 63 3.2 HVReedRelaysforHighCurrentApplications... ....... 71 3.3 RelayRespondingtotheCurrentChangingRate... ...... 74 3.4 DifferentialHVReedRelay . . ...... ...... ...... ..... 75 3.5 Reed-BasedDevicesforCurrentMeasurementinHigh PotentialCircuits.. ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ... 76 3.6 Spark-ArrestingCircuitsforReedRelays .. ...... ...... . 78 4 ElementaryFunctionModules...... ...... ...... ....... 83 4.1 SwitchingDevices .. ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... 83 4.2 Generators,Multivibrators,Pulse-Pairs.. ...... ...... .. 97 4.3 Timers..... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... . . 104 4.4 LogicElements... ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ... 107 4.5 OvercurrentandOvervoltageProtectionModules..... ... 111 4.6 VoltageStabilizersandRegulators... ...... ..... ...... 117 4.7 OtherFunctionalModulesforAutomaticDevices .. ...... 124 5 SimpleProtectiveRelaysonDiscreteComponents . ....... 131 5.1 UniversalOvercurrentProtectiveRelay .. ...... ...... . 131 5.2 SimpleVeryHigh-SpeedOvercurrentProtectionRelay . .. . 140 vii © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC viii Contents 5.3 TheNewGenerationUniversalPurposeHybridReed-Solid- StateProtectiveRelays . ...... ...... ...... ...... .... 154 5.4 AutomaticHigh-VoltageCircuitBreakers.... ...... .... 163 5.5 High-SpeedVoltageUnbalanceRelay . ...... ...... .... 167 5.6 ImpulseActionProtectiveRelay . ... ...... ...... ...... 169 6 ImprovementofMicroprocessor-BasedProtectiveRelays.. 173 6.1 PowerSupplyofMicroprocessor-BasedProtectiveRelays atEmergencyMode .... ..... ...... ...... ...... ..... 173 6.2 IncreasingReliabilityofTripContactsinMicroprocessor- BasedProtectiveRelays . ... ...... ...... ...... ...... 181 7 AutomaticDevicesforPowerEngineering. ...... ..... ... 197 7.1 ArcProtectionDeviceforSwitchboards6–24kV.. ..... 197 7.2 Automatic-ResetShortCircuitIndicatorfor6–24kVBus Bars. ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... . . 199 7.3 High-CurrentPulseTransducerforMetal-OxideSurge Arrester.. ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... .... 201 7.4 CurrentTransformers’ProtectionfromSecondaryCircuit Disconnection... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... .... 207 7.5 ASingle-PhaseShortCircuitIndicatorforInternalHV CablesinMediumVoltageSubstation. ...... ...... .... 211 7.6 GroundCircuitFaultIndicatorforUndergroundHVCable Network.... ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... .. 214 7.7 HVIndicatorsforSwitchgearsandSwitchboards..... .... 218 AppendixA1:High-SpeedMiniatureReedSwitches ... ....... . . 225 AppendixA2:High-VoltageVacuumReedSwitches.. ........ .. 233 AppendixA3:MercuryWettedReedSwitches..... .... ...... .. 245 AppendixA4:IndustrialDryReedSwitches.... ...... ....... .. 251 AppendixB1:High-VoltageBipolarTransistors.... ...... ...... 281 AppendixB2:High-VoltageDarlingtonTransistors. .... ...... .. 333 AppendixB3:High-VoltageFETTransistors . ...... ..... ...... 341 AppendixB4:High-VoltageIGBTTransistors... ...... . .. ..... 351 AppendixC:High-VoltageThyristors .. ..... ...... ........ .. 367 AppendixD:High-VoltageTriacs.... ...... ...... ... ...... .. 389 AppendixE:BilateralVoltage-TriggerSwitches. ...... . .. ..... 401 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ⎡ ⎤ Preface Integral microchips and microprocessors have come into our lives so swiftly and completely that sometimes it seems that modern equipment simply cannot exist without them, which is true. However, dependenceofmodern equipment on microe- lectronicsandmicroprocessorsdoesnotmean thattherearenoproblemsinthisarea. Theintegrityofmanyfunctions distributed earlier amongseparatedevices ofa com- plex system in a single microprocessor leads to the reduction of system reliability becausedamagetothemicroprocessor or toanynumber of peripheralelementsserv- ing the microprocessor leads to failure of the whole system but not of its separate functions as it was in pre-microprocessor time. Added tothis is theextra sensitivity of microelectronic and microprocessor-based equipment to electromagnetic interfer- ences (EMI) and the possibility of intentional remote actions breaking the normal operation of the microprocessor-based devices (electromagnetic weapons, electro- magnetic terrorism). Intensive investigations into the electromagnetic weapons field arebeingcarriedoutin Russia,theU.S.,England,Germany,China,andIndia.Many world-leading companies work intensively in this sphere creating new devices of theseweapon systemsfunctioningatadistanceofseveraldozensofmeterstoseveral kilometers, which while specialized in their use are still available to everybody (as theyarefreelysoldonthemarket). Theneed for specialized power supplies of microprocessors, different types of memory, special input and output circuits, special software – in short, all of the above-mentioned – has led to the situation where documentation and manufacturing ofautomation deviceshasbecomeavailableonlytoserious companieshavingallthe necessaryresourcesforthis.Developmenttendenciesofthisareaoftechniquemakeit more and more unavailable to individual engineers and technicians wishing to apply their knowledge and ingenuity to improve production or technological processes to their companies. At the same time, lately in the market a number of new types of small-size, discrete electronic components with previously inaccessible parameters appeared.Theyareminiaturetransistorsmeantfor currentsofdozensofamperesand voltages of1200 – 1600 V; miniaturevacuumreed switches with operational speeds of milliseconds capable of sustaining voltages of 1,000 – 2,000 V; and other no less interesting elements. These new discrete components serve as the basis for creating industrialautomationandcontroldevicesthatarefeddirectlyfromnetworksof220– 250 V and work directly with input and output signals of the same voltage level. Hybrid devices combining advantages of semiconductor (transistors, thyristors) and electromechanical(reedswitches)elementsareofparticularinterest. This book is concerned with the description of different functional units and automationdevicesforindustryandelectricpowerengineeringimplementedbymod- ern discrete electronic elements without using microelectronics and microprocessor- based technologies. The devices described in this book turn out to be much simpler v © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC vi Preface and cheaper; theymay be produced not only by large companies, but even by inde- pendentamateurs.Thisbookpresentsforthereaders’judgmentdozensofunusualbut verysimplerealizabledevices, which maybeeasilycreated byanyengineer or tech- nician wishing to improve automation systems. Some of the technical decisions pre- sentedbytheauthormayserveasthebasisforthecreationofnewtypesofdevicesof relayprotection and automation free from disadvantages of complex microelectronic systems. The book consists of seven chapters and appendices containing reference data. Thefirst threechapters aredevoted tothetheoryand operating principles ofmodern discretecomponentsdesignedforautomationdevices:transistors,thyristors,dinistors, reedswitches, andhigh-voltagereedswitchrelays. Thefourth chapter describesdoz- ens ofdifferentfunctionalmodules ofautomation systems incorporatingdiscreteele- ments with direct supplyfrom 220 – 250 V networks: switching devices, generators and multivibrators, timers, logic elements, elements sensitive to overcurrents and overvoltages,voltageregulatorsandstabilizers,pulseexpanders,etc.Thefifth,sixth, and seventh chapters aredevoted tothedescription ofconcreteexamples ofautoma- tion devices for industryand electric power engineering based on discrete electronic componentsandalsohybridones:semiconductorsandreedswitches. Thebook makes a smooth transition from theoryand theproperties ofmodern electronicelementsbymeansofexamination ofoperatingprinciplesandexamplesof realization of separate functional units of automation devices to the description of concreteexamplesofthosethatarefinishedandreadyfor use.Theauthor thinksthat this approach to the material will make it possible for the readers not onlyto repeat theconstructions that aredescribed, but tounderstandandmaster thegeneral princi- ples of automation devices on discrete elements and to apply them in the future for creation of new necessary constructions. As an aid to complete understanding, volu- minous reference material has been included containing information about the most moderncomponentsspeciallyselectedbytheauthorandclassifiedintheappendices. © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ⎡ ⎤ 1 Solid-State Electronic Elements 1.1 SEMICONDUCTINGMATERIALSANDP-N-JUNCTION As is known, all substances depending on their electro-conductivity are divided into three groups: conductors (usually metals) with a resistance of 10-6-10-3Ohm⋅cm, dielectrics with a resistance of 109-1020 Ohm⋅cm, and semiconductors (many native- grownandartificialcrystals)coveringanenormousintermediaterangeofvaluesofspe- cificelectricalresistance. Themainpeculiarityofcrystalsubstancesistypical,well-orderedatomicpacking intopeculiar blocks – crystals.Each crystalhas several flat symmetricsurfacesandits internalstructureisdeterminedbytheregularpositionalrelationshipofitsatoms,which is called the lattice. Both in appearance and in structure, any crystal is like any other crystal of the same given substance. Crystals of various substances are different. For example, a crystal of table salt has the form of a cube. A single crystal may be quite large in size or so small that it can only be seen with thehelp of a microscope. Sub- stances having no crystal structureare called amorphous. For example, glass is amor- phousincontrasttoquartz,whichhasacrystalstructure. Amongthesemiconductorsthatarenowusedinelectronics,oneshouldpointout germanium, silicon, selenium, copper-oxide, copper sulfide, cadmium sulfide, gallium arsenide,andcarborundum.Toproducesemiconductorstwoelementsaremostlyused: germaniumandsilicon. In order tounderstand theprocesses taking placein semiconductors, it is neces- saryto consider phenomenain the crystal structureof semiconductor materials, which occur whentheiratomsareheld ina strictlydeterminedrelativeposition toeach other due to weakly bound electrons on their external shells. Such electrons, together with electrons ofneighboringatoms, formvalencebonds between theatoms. Electronstak- ing part in such bonds are called valence electrons. In absolutely pure germanium or silicon at verylowtemperaturestherearenofreeelectrons capableofcreating electric current, because under such circumstances all four valence electrons of the external shells ofeachatomthatcan takepartin theprocess ofchargetransfer aretoostrongly 1 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 2 Chapter1 heldbythevalencebounds.That’swhythatsubstanceisaninsulator(dielectric)inthe fullsenseoftheword–itdoesnotletelectriccurrentpassatall. Whenthetemperatureisincreased,duetothethermalmotionsomevalenceelec- tronsdetachfromtheirbondsandcanmovealongthecrystallattice.Suchelectronsare calledfreeelectrons.Thevalencebond from whichtheelectron isdetachediscalleda hole. It possesses properties of a positive electric charge, in contrast to the electron, whichhasanegative electriccharge.Themorethetemperatureis,themorethenumber offreeelectronscapableofmovingalongthelattice,andthehighertheconductivityof thesubstanceis. Moving along the crystal lattice, free electrons may run across holes – valence bonds missing someelectrons –and fill up these bonds. Such a phenomenon is called recombination. At normal temperatures in the semiconductor material, free electrons occurconstantly,andrecombinationofelectronsandholestakesplace. If a piece of semiconductor material is put into an electric field by applying a positive or negativeterminal to its ends, for instance, electrons will move through the latticetowardsthepositiveelectrodeandholes–tothenegativeone.Theconductivity ofa semiconductor can beenhanced considerablybyputtingspeciallyselectedadmix- tures toit – metal or non-metal ones. In thelatticetheatoms of theseadmixtures will replacesomeoftheatomsofthesemiconductors.Letusremindourselvesthatexternal shellsofatomsofgermaniumandsilicon contain four valenceelectrons,andthatelec- trons can onlybe taken from the external shell of theatom. In their turn the electrons can be added onlytotheexternal shell,and themaximum number of electrons on the externalshelliseight. Whenanatomoftheadmixturethathasmorevalenceelectronsthanrequiredfor valence bonds with neighboring atoms of the semiconductor, additional free electrons capable ofmoving along thelatticeoccur on it. As aresult the electro-conductivityof the semiconductor increases. As germanium and silicon belong to the fourth group of theperiodictable of chemical elements, donors for them may be elements of the fifth group,whichhavefiveelectronsontheexternalshellofatoms.Phosphorusarsenic,and stibiumbelongtosuchdonors (donoradmixture). Ifadmixtureatomshavefewer electronsthanneededfor valencebondswith sur- roundingsemiconductoratoms,someofthesebondsturnouttobevacantandholeswill occur inthem.Admixturesofthiskindarecalledp-typeonesbecausetheyabsorb(ac- cept) free electrons. For germanium and silicon, p-type admixtures are elements from thethird group of theperiodictable of chemical elements, external shells of atoms of which contain three valence electrons. Boron, aluminum, gallium, and indium can be consideredp-typeadmixtures (accepteradmixture). In thecrystalstructureofa puresemiconductor all valencebonds ofneighboring atoms turn out to be fully filled, and occurrence of free electrons and holes can be caused onlybydeformation oflattice,arisingfromthermalor otherradiation.Because ofthis,conductivityofapuresemiconductorisquitelowundernormalconditions. Ifsomedonoradmixtureisinjected,thefour electronsoftheadmixture,together with the samenumber in the filled valence, bond with thelatter. The fifth electron of eachadmixtureatomappearstobe“excessive”or“redundant,”andthereforecanfreely movealongthelattice. When an accepter admixture is injected, only three filled valence bonds are formedbetweeneachatomoftheadmixtureandneighboringatomsofthesemiconduc- tor. To fill up the fourth, one electron is lacking. This valence bond appears to be va- © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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