Ecosystem Services of UHE Carlos Botelho

12 Pages·2013·0.78 MB·English

Ecosystem Services of UHE Carlos Botelho (Lobo/Broa):
a new approach for management and planning of dams multiple-uses
Periotto,NA.a*andTundisi,JG.b
aPost-GraduationProgrammeinEcologyandNaturalResources,FederalUniversityofSãoCarlos–UFSCar,
SãoCarlos,SP,Brazil
bInternationalInstituteofEcology,RuaBentoCarlos750,CEP13560-660,SãoCarlos,SP,Brazil
e-mail:[email protected]
Received:February14,2012 –Accepted:August27,2012–Distributed:August31,2013
(With2figures)
Abstract
Theaimofthisstudywastoidentifyandmakeaninitialaccountingoftheecosystemservicesofthehydroelectric
powergenerationplant,UHECarlosBotelho(ItirapinaMunicipality,SãoPauloState,Brazil),anditsmostextensive
wetlands-totalof2,640ha-andalsoidentifythedriversofchangeoftheseservices.Twenty(20)ecosystemservices
were identified and the estimated quantitative total value obtained was USD 120,445,657.87. year-1 or USD
45,623.35ha-1.year-1.InvestmentsonrestorationofspatialheterogeneityalongTietê-Jacaréhydrographicbasinand
newtechnologiesforregionaleconomicactivitiesmustmaintainecologicalfunctionsaswellasincreasemarginalval-
uesofecosystemservicesandthepotentialannualeconomicreturnofecologicalfunctions.
Keywords: neotropical reservoirs, ecosystem services, hydrographic basin management, cost-benefit analysis,
wetlands,drivers.
ServiçosecossistêmicosdoreservatóriodaUHECarlosBotelho(Lobo-Broa):umanova
abordagemparaogerenciamentoeplanejamentodosmúltiplosusosderepresas
Resumo
EsteestudotevecomoobjetivoidentificarevalorarosserviçosecossistêmicosdaUHECarlosBotelho(Itirapina,
EstadodeSãoPaulo,Brasil)esuasáreasalagadasmaisextensasetambémidentificarasforçantesdealteraçõesnestes
serviços.Vinte(20)serviçosecossistêmicosforamidentificadoseovalorquantitativototalestimadoobtidoresultou
em USD 120.445.657,87. ano-1 ou USD 45.623,35 ha-1.ano-1. Investimentos na restauração da heterogeneidade
espacialdabaciahidrográficadoTietê-Jacaréeemnovastecnologiasparaasatividadeseconômicasregionaisdevem
contribuirparaamanutençãodasfunçõesecológicaseparaoaumentodosvaloresmarginaisedovalorpotencialanual
deretornodosserviçosecossistêmicos.
Palavras-chave: reservatórios neotropicais, serviços ecossistêmicos, gerenciamento da bacia hidrográfica, análise
custo-benefício,áreasalagadas,forçantes.
1.Introduction innovative way” to assess their local and regional
significance,“providingaconsolidatedconceptualbasis
Reservoir construction for hydroelectricity genera-
forfuturestrategicplansonreservoirconstructioninthe
tionhasbeenwidelystudiedconcerningitsimpactson
Neotropics”(Tundisietal.,2008b).
biotaandhumanwell-beingthroughtheadoptionofEn-
Itisessentialtoconsiderspatialandtemporalscales
vironmental Impact Assessment (EIA) protocols. To
ofecosystemservices,andthustheassessmentofitsdi-
complement EIA protocols, Tundisi et al. (2008b) pro-
rect and indirect drivers (World Resources Institute,
posedanewapproachforidentifyingpositiveandnega-
2005) may be an essential tool to point out the main
tiveaspectsofdamconstructionbasedoncost-benefit
managementactionsneededtorestoreandmaintainthe
assessment through valuation of ecosystem services of
ecosystem functioning along the hydrographic basin.
reservoirs. Valuing ecosystem services, although diffi-
Thiswillguaranteethegoodfunctioningoftheecologi-
cultanduncertain,isanimportanttooltoperceivehow
cal processes of the reservoir and the services it pro-
human welfare may be affected by their degradation
videsforhumanwell-being.
(Costanzaetal.,1997).Forreservoirs,inwhichthecon-
structionprocessesmodifymostoftheoriginalterrestrial Theoretical studies of reservoir ecosystem services
andaquaticecosystemservices,thisanalysismaybe“an maycontributeforagoodepistemologicaldevelopment
Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 471
Periotto,NA.andTundisi,JG.
ofaneconomicvaluationtheoryoftheseaquaticsystems Theobjectiveofthisstudyistoidentifytheecosys-
forfuturecost-benefitanalyses. tem services and their drivers of change in the UHE
Carlos Botelho reservoir and the two main wetlands
1.1.UHECarlosBotelhoreservoir (Lobo and Itaqueri) with the purpose of constructing
somebackgroundformanagementplansandcontribut-
UHECarlosBotelhoreservoirisagoodmodelfora ingforfuturecost-benefitanalysesofdamconstruction.
theoreticalstudybecauseithasbeenintensivelystudied Inaddition,thisisafirstattempttoorganisean“ecologi-
byresearchersfromuniversitiesandotherresearchinsti- cal service data sheet” for a small but intensively used
tutionsforatleast40yearsintheareasofaquaticecol- reservoirinSãoPauloState,Brazil.Thisstudymaycon-
ogy,zoology,botany,geologyandothers,butthereare tribute for the construction of (a) an ecosystem service
fewstudiesconcerningtheimportanceofecosystemser- database of UHE Carlos Botelho reservoir and its
vicesforhumanwell-being.Thisreservoirislocatedin marshes,(b)abackgroundforfutureenvironmentalman-
themiddleofSãoPauloState(22°15’S;47°49’W),Bra- agement plans of Tietê-Jacaré hydrographic basin, and
zil(Figure1),andpertainstoItirapinamunicipality.Itis (c)abackgroundforfuturecost-benefitanalysesforthe
insertedinTietê-Jacaréhydrographicbasinanditsmain constructionofnewhydroelectricpowerplantreservoirs
tributariesaretheLoboStreamandItaqueriRiver,both intheNeotropicalregion.
withthemostextensivewetlands.
Createdin1936,itsmainobjectivewastosupplywa- 2.MaterialandMethods
ter for Carlos Botelho hydroelectric power generation
plant (UHE), which provides energy in small scale Fortheassessmentofecosystemserviceswiththeir
(2000kWh).Nowadays,themultipleusesofthereser- ecological,social,andeconomicrelations,amatrixwas
voircontributeforlocalandregionaldevelopmentofen- organisedaccordingtoDeGroot(1992;1994)whereen-
vironmental,socialandeconomicactivities.Landusesof vironmental services identified for the UHE Carlos
thisbasinarecharacterisedmainlybyagriculture,refor- Botelho reservoir and both wetlands were listed and
estation,sandminingandcattleraisingbuttherearealso matched with their corresponding benefits for human
impactsofhumanwastederivedfromnon-pointsources well-being:a)ecologicalvalues(conservationandexis-
andthenon-efficientstabilizationpondsofItirapinaMu- tencevalue);b)socialvalues(health);andc)economical
nicipality(Tundisietal.,2003). values(consumptionusevalue,productiveusevalueand
Figure1-LocationofUHECarlosBotelhoreservoir,itstributariesandmainwetlands,ItaqueriandLobo.
472 Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482
UHECarlosBotelhoreservoirecosystemservices
employment value). As this study does not use contin- Brazil’sCarbonInstituteforthemediumcostofcarbon
gentmethodologies,optionvalues(correspondenttoso- allowancesonDecember2010.
cialvalues)wereomittedastheyreflectpeople’sprefer- Direct and indirect drivers of change in ecosystem
encesforthefuture.Ecosystemservicesprovidedbythe serviceswereanalysedaccordingtotheMillenniumEco-
reservoir and wetlands were listed all together, due to systemAssessment(2005)framework,wherealltheeco-
theirecologicalinteractions. systemservicesidentified,andconsequentmainbenefits
In this matrix, qualitative values were assigned for for human well-being, direct and indirect drivers were
servicesthatrequirecontingentvaluationasforexample listed in separate boxes and linked through arrows ac-
existencevalue,orotherservicesthatwerenotpossible cordingtotheirinfluenceoneachotherandconsidering
toinputavalue.Signalswereusedtoexpressdirectorin- thatallthesecomponentsoperateonlocal,regionaland
directbenefits:+(onepositivesignal),forservicesthat globalscales.
indirectlyaffecthumanwell-being;++(twopositivesig-
nals),forservicesthatdirectlyaffecthumanwell-being. 3.Results
Quantitativevalueswereestimatedbasedoninformation Table1showstheecosystemservicesidentifiedfor
acquiredonscientificliteratureandoralcommunication. UHECarlosBotelhoreservoirandwetlandsofItaqueri
Calculationsofquantitativevaluesnotonlytookintoac- RiverandLoboStream.Thefollowingparagraphsdetail
countthereservoirsuperficialareaof6.8km2(Tundisiet eachserviceidentifiedandvalued.Figure2showsdirect
al.,2003),butItaqueriRiverandLoboStreamwetlands’ andindirectdriversoftheservicesidentified.
totalareaof19.6km2(Vergara,1996)astheseecosys-
temsinteract.Thetotalareaconsideredinallcalculations (a)Solarenergyfixation(photosynthesis)andbio-
is26.4km2or2,640ha.CurrencyconversionfromBra- massproduction,(b)gasregulationand(c)oxygenpro-
zilian “Reais” to United States Dollars (USD) was ob- duction: Photosynthesis is a very important regulation
tainedonthewebsitehttp:\finance.yahoo.com,withex- functionforallecosystemservices.Biomassproduction,
changeratesfromApril4th2011(R$1.00=USD0.62; which is a consequence of the photosynthesis process,
1.00 = USD 1.42). Carbon price was established as may be used as an ecosystem good for human welfare
14.00/tonC(USD9.90/tonC),accordingtoestimatesof andgenerateconsumption,productionandemployment
Figure2-DirectandindirectdriversofchangeintheLoboReservoirecosystemservices(AdaptedfromMillenniumEcosys-
temAssessment,2005).
Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 473
Periotto,NA.andTundisi,JG.
3
Sources Angelini&Petrere,1996 Thibodeau&Ostro(apudSantos,2000) Monteiro,200
nt
e
me
yu +
ploval +
m
E
e 4 4
marshes onomicalvalues Productiveusvalue 102,423,999.8 102,423,999.8
sive Ec use
n n
e o
oiranditsmostext Consumptivalue ++ potentialservices.
otelhoreserv ocialvalues Health ++ ++ ++ ++ + well-being.*:
B S
arlos uman
C h
UHE enceue + + + + + affect
esof Existval + + + + + ectly
alu dir
Table1-Ecosystemservices,quantitative(USD/year)andqualitativev Ecologicalvalues ServiceFunctionConservationvalue Regulation13,205,506.13 Gasregulation 5,506.13Regulationoftheatmosphereairqualitybyemissionorex-tractionofchemicals. ++ClimateregulationRegulationoftempera-ture,precipitationandallbio-logicalprocessesdependentonclimatevariablesatlocallevel. 13,200,000.00Waterflowregula-Integrityofecosystemre-tion/floodpreventionsponsetoenvironmentalfluc-tuations. WaterstorageandWaterfluxregulationfor++groundwaterrechargegroundwaterrecharge. ++Retentionofsedimentparti-Sedimentreten-cles,organicmatterandnu-tion,soilformationtrientswithintheecosystem.andfertilitymainte-nance. +:servicesthatindirectlyaffecthumanwell-being.++:forservicesthat
474 Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482
UHECarlosBotelhoreservoirecosystemservices
6
Sources Angelini&Petrere,199
nt
e
ploymvalue + *++
m
E
e
es us
u e
micalval roductivvalue + *++
o P
n
o
Ec se
u
n
o
umptivalue + *++ vices.
Cons alser
nti
e
ot
p
s *:
ocialvalue Health + ++ + ++ ++ well-being.
S
n
a
m
u
h
enceue + + + + + affect
Existval + + + + + ectly
dir
at
n h
gicalvalues Conservatiovalue 92,186.65 88,377.49 3.809,16 ++ ++ ++ +:forservicest
Ecolo Function Transformationofluminousenergyintochemicalenergy(organisms’structure–bio-logicalmaterialorbiomass–forthesubsequentelementofthetrophicchain). Recyclingandstorageofnu-trientandotheressentialchemicalelements. Habitatforbiotareproduc-tion. Habitatforfaunaandflora Watermovementamongthedifferentdepositsites. ctlyaffecthumanwell-being.+
Table1(cont.) Service Regulation Solarenergyfixation(photosynthesis)andbiomassproduction Nutrientretentionandinterventiononbiogeochemicalcy-cles Maintenanceofre-productionhabitats Maintenanceofbio-logicaldiversity Watercycling +:servicesthatindire
Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 475
Periotto,NA.andTundisi,JG.
Sources Tundisi,oralcommunication Pereiraet.al,2008;AratuGeraçãoS/A,oralcom-munication;Vergara,1996
nt 5 5
ploymevalue 7,862.5 ++ 7,862.5 *++ *++ *++
m 8 8
E 5 5
e
micalvalues roductiveusvalue 3,956,440.33 745,272.12 3,211,168.21(constructedarea) *++ *++ *++
o P
n
o
Ec se
u
Consumptionvalue 14,904.00 14,904.00(fishing) ++ *++ + *++ alservices.
nti
e
ot
p
s *:
ocialvalue Health ++ ++ ++ *++ ++ ++ + *++ well-being.
S
n
a
m
u
h
enceue + + + + affect
Existval + + + + ectly
dir
at
n h
o t
values nservativalue ++ ++ ++ services
gical Co +:for
Ecolo Function Storageandretentionofwa-terforhydroelectricitypro-duction. Availablespaceforhumanleisure. Availablespaceforhumantransportation. Physicalandchemicalcondi-tionsavailableforlargescalemarketproductionofsomespecies. Oxygenproductionasresultofphotosynthesis. Portionofgrossprimarypro-ductionextractableasfood. Biologicalbasisofspeciesvariability Sourceofmedicinalproducts ctlyaffecthumanwell-being.+
Table1(cont.) Service Support Energyconversion Recreationandtour-ism Transportation *Aquaculture(fishfarming) Production Oxygen Food Geneticresources Medicinalresources +:servicesthatindire
476 Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482
UHECarlosBotelhoreservoirecosystemservices
economicvalues.Associalandeconomicbenefitsarein-
Sources Tundisi,oralommunica-on) dPvdiaurrilcemutceiato.,rnyFtohoprefrytohtdhiwsueeccrtpaeiholcynsutcolomaptrliaeaoydnnk,ewtvxoiapntlhrueaesonssndoebfsiqootoummtaaaellistspmartipaivmcreoraodrspuyihcgpytnirtoaeolns-.
(cti
weresummed(MatheusandTundisiapudTundisi,1988;
ent 6 6 Tundisi and Matsumura-Tundisi, 2008; Delello, 2008).
mploymvalue 54,919.4 ++ 54,919.4 Ctvoaotlanulseisdfuoeprrei“nrsfgiocltiaharalteanmreearacgroyoffpithxhyaetteirosensoeacrncvudopibryiot1hm0e%atsos(t6ap8lroehdsatu)imcotfiaottenhd”e
E
ecosystemserviceisUSD88,377.49peryear.
e
micalvalues roductiveusvalue 109,838.91 ++ 109,838.91 glDaetenespCtrhieotesensuseliuttgasmanmsptetfesirosoionnm-atohnlpeidghaoortettmroloesoapysshnpeithchoeefrssetciaasatrneab,dnordinensdraueiqosltupxsaiirdtoaiebctitasoanynindstreeoedmgxuyisn--.
o P EcopathIImodelling(AngeliniandPetrere,1996)show
n
o thatthebalanceoftotalprimaryproduction/totalrespira-
Ec use tionispositive.Theestimatedvalueforgasregulation
on ecosystemserviceisUSD5,506.13peryear.Twoquali-
mptialue ++ ces. tativescoreswereattributedtoexistenceandhealthval-
uv vi ues for its intrinsic importance and direct influence on
Cons ntialser humAansohbesaeltrhv.edbyCostanzaetal.(1997)onesingleeco-
e systemfunctionmayresultinmorethanoneecosystem
ot
p service.Photosynthesisfunctionsofextractionorrelease
ocialvalues Health ++ ++ well-being.*: faodovfurocgitardieoseodnsxo”iumegbcealonyesavryteiasosltuuenmlattoiisofnen“rthvgoeiafcsteahrsqie.sugTfauhutlienacctliatositoyntens”rt,eai“mnsodvsx.e“yrogIyxneiynmogpreprdnooerdprtuarotnco--t
S
n tion”wasqualitativelyvaluedwithhighecologicaland
a
m socialvalues.
u
h Direct drivers: Release of organic (domestic and
enceue + affect caantdtlpeersatiisciindgeswraesstiedsu)easn)dininToiergtêa-nJiaccparoéllhuytadnrtosg(rfaeprhtiilcisbears-
Existval + ectly sin.Suspendedorganicmattermayinfluencelightpene-
dir tration,affectingphotosynthesis,absorptionandproduc-
at tionofgasesandprimaryproduction.Iforganicmatter
n h
o t accumulatesinthereservoiritmayrequireahighcon-
gicalvalues Conservativalue ++ +:forservices semunemcniInptn,gtiddoteihnrmeeoocrfgtesrddaeirprsivshvooyeli,rvresewc:doAantodeoxremyqqgiuuceaanatleictatyeniv.ndivtciireaosunasmnedeantnetoacxlhimnao,alinonagfgileues--
Ecolo Function Valuespeopleattachtothelandscapeandhowtheyun-derstanditsuse. Allthestructureprovidedthatenablesthedevelopmentofscientificresearchandthuseducationalvalues. ctlyaffecthumanwell-being.+ insbicttennhheonorfdeerilcllnvlioiiuervrgingeeccoagikncetlweiutnscovs.neeounemswEstwcphepnaloereeeyovonlsdoffipetrsagrpeeooirselbrcenefettotu.rmyoevaTstniytveciohtcnosaadneetltmcsiessuarhem.lemetoSascteou,cctsdtnethfiduiteorieohrcntvriineamtiveiicstnsefriaeimoesrancssstnbaaaeraeongyerrnfvuceesfdaeoelmtelaa.titcothreertefcnressdhitbeinomoreaodnvhfcnipitvaedcoinvciorerdeioinstvouwas,seuanyirtlrmncsseteafaceuflnnouhomsddf--rt
ul- ca- ndire grou(dn)dwCaltiemrarteechraergguel,a(tfi)onre,cr(eea)tiwonataerndsttoourarigsem,a(ngd)
C u i
Table1(cont.) Service Information Aestheticandtural Scienceandedtion +:servicesthat wuotsiefloarawnvtteiiarrocteencessyr/ufcfalllltosoisonweidgnns,ep(fwrrhrgeoa)yvmteeecnrntoehtsniretovgobneyraar,cssg(oiiejonn)nwvwt,reharareitsncecishrorpebngoao,etrd(itnoiai)eentrwsi,aoaaftnlento:esdorRddpfierlrpoececrweceiptpvrtiuieetosgnane---
Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 477
Periotto,NA.andTundisi,JG.
tion,andindirectuseoneslikelocalclimateregulation, cial values as this service benefits biota, and avoid
groundwaterrechargeandwatercycling. injuriestohumanhealth.
Energyconversion:AccordingtotheownerofUHE Water cycling and climate regulation: Reception
Carlos Botelho hydroelectric generation power plant andstorageofwaterflowsfromthehydrographicbasin
(AratuGeraçãoS/A)theenergygeneratedissoldforap- and precipitation fluxes, evaporation, evapotranspira-
proximatelyUSD62,106.01permonthresultinginUSD tion,andgroundwaterinfiltrationarecontributionsofthe
745,272.12peryearpassingdirectlythroughthemarket. studied area for water cycling. There is no direct mea-
This service positively impacts human well-being and surementoftheinfluenceoftheUHECarlosBotelhores-
employment, so that these values were highly qualita- ervoiranditswetlandsontemperatureandprecipitation
tivelyscored. regulationintheregionbutitisknownthatevaporation
Recreationandtourism:Thisservicegeneratesex- ofwaterfromawaterbodydoeselevatelocalhumidity
pressive direct economic fluxes on local and regional andmayeaselocalclimate.Thisevaporativecoolingcre-
economiesbyactivities(aquaticsports,fishingandtour- ates a more comfortable environment for visitors’
ismingeneral)basedonwaterstorage.Thisquantitative welfareandforbiotathatdependonhumidity.Theseser-
valuewasinferredbysumminguppropertyvalues(hou- vices-watercyclingandclimateregulation-wereevalu-
sesconstructednearthereservoir),fishingvalues(travel ated with a high score on conservation, existence and
cost value) and employment value. Property value was health values due to their high positive impacts on the
estimatedatUSD3,211,168.21peryearasproductive maintenanceofaquaticandterrestriallocalecosystems
usevalue,basedonVergara(1996).Fishingvalue(Pe- andonhumanwell-being.
reiraetal.,2008)wasestimatedatUSD14,904.00per Transportation:Thesupplyofwaterstoredwithin
year, as consumption use value. Employment value the reservoir supports aquatic transport, which in this
was estimated considering costs of maintenance of 85 case, is used in recreation activities. This service was
employees (Vergara, 1996) totalling USD 587,862.55 scored with the higher qualitative social and economic
peryear.Thetotalestimatedvalueforrecreationand consumptivevaluesasitinfluenceshumanhealth,well-
tourism ecosystem service is USD 3,977,878,76 per being,andthelocaleconomy.
year. Social values were highly scored because recre- Directdrivers:(1)Landcoverandusealongthehy-
ationaffectsmentalandphysicalhumanhealth. drographicbasin–whichinfluencethedischargeoffer-
Water storage and groundwater recharge: The tilizers, pesticides and other chemical substances into
areathatembracesUHECarlosBotelhoreservoirandits waterbodies,wetlandsandUHECarlosBotelhoreser-
wetlands is inserted in the Guarani Aquifer System voir–havethepotentialtocausealgaeandotheraquatic
(GAS) recharge area (Gomes et al., 2006). Based on plantsexcessivegrowth,anoxiaandeutrophication.This
Monteiro (2003) data of recharge rate and on market may impact the water quality of the reservoir for biota
price of treated water provisioned by the Autonomous andrecreationactivities(fishing,swimming,etc.);trans-
ServiceofWaterandWastewaterofSãoCarlosMunici- portationandenergyconversionduetoexcessivegrowth
pality (São Paulo State, Brazil), the resulting value is offlora;thequalityofwaterrechargedtounderground
USD 102,423,999.84 per year, which is considered as supply; and cause excessive sediment transportation
productionusevaluesinceagreatpartofthewatersup- fromthebasintowetlandsandreservoir,whichreduces
plyusedinSãoPauloState(Brazil)isgroundwater.Wa- theirdepthandbuffercapacitytosoftentheimpactsof
terstorageandgroundwaterrechargeisofgreatimpor- natural floods. (2) Precipitation extremes, which deter-
tanceforallecological,social,andeconomicvalues,so minethequantityofwaterstoredanddirectlyinfluence
highqualitativevaluesweregiventotheonesthatcould hydroelectric generation, flood prevention and water
notbequantified.Smallscaleextractionofgroundwater quality.(3)Theintroductionofallochtonousfishspecies
(domesticwells)isverycommoninthisregion,aswellas and consequent elimination of other fish species is
bigscaleextractiontosupplymunicipalities,soground- knowntobethecauseoflowfrequencyoffishermenin
waterrechargeecosystemservicecertainlyhasimportant thisreservoir(Pereiraetal.,2008).(4)Spatialheteroge-
influence on the regional economy and human well- neityalsoinfluenceswaterqualityandquantityalongthe
being. hydrographic basin, reservoir and wetlands. Indirect
Water flow regulation/flood prevention: Distur- drivers: Demography and economy, which determine
bancepreventionbythereservoirandwetlands,through landcoverandusealongthebasinandwastewaterdis-
theregulationofwaterflowsduringprecipitationevents posal; science and technologies that determine alterna-
isimportanttoprotectadjacentanddownstreamhouses, tives for economic activities; environmental manage-
homefarms,recreationinfra-structureandotherproper- ment and education for the maintenance of spatial
tiesfromfloodingandconsequentdamagestolocalecon- heterogeneityandwaterqualityforhumanuse.
omy and human health. According to Thibodeau and
Ostro(apudSantos,2000)thevalueoffloodprevention (k)Nutrientretentionandinterventiononbiogeo-
ofwetlandsisUSD5,000.00/ha/year.Thisvaluewasin- chemicalcycles:Wetlandsprovidewaterofgoodquality
ferredforthereservoirandwetlandareaswhichresulted - maintenance of low conductivity and organic matter
in USD13,200,000.00 per year as conservation value. concentration - for recreation for UHE Carlos Botelho
Highqualitativescoresweregiventoexistenceandso- reservoir(TundisiandMatsumura-Tundisi,2003).Whi-
478 Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482
UHECarlosBotelhoreservoirecosystemservices
takeretal.(1995)studiedthreedifferentcompartments scoredwithtwohighqualitativevalues,asthisserviceis
(sediment, interstitial water and water layer above wa- important for the maintenance of local ecological pro-
ter-sediment interface) of Lobo Stream and Itaqueri ductivity. One qualitative value was given to social
Riverwetlandsandverifiedthat13to20%ofnitrogen healthvalue,asitindirectlyaffectshumanhealth.
comingfromupstreamwaterbodiesisrecycledinthese Directdrivers:Landcoveranduseandspatialheter-
wetlands.Tundisietal.(2003)estimatedacostofUSD ogeneityonTietê-Jacaréhydrographicbasinarethemain
1,428,438.34 for the implementation of a wastewater directdriversofthisservice.Vegetationmosaicsregulate
treatmentplantinthisarea.Thisvaluemaybeconsidered erosion and suspended solid transport (Tundisi and
asareplacementcostasthewastewatertreatmentplant Matsumura-Tundisi,2010).Ontheotherhand,economic
represents a substitution of ecosystem services. Con- activitiesthatremovevegetationcoversuchasagricul-
sidering the maximum nitrogen treatment percentage ture,cattleraisingandsandmining,increasesoilerosive
(20%)(Whitakeretal.,1995)ofthewetlands,andtheex- potential and suspended solid transport. Indirect driv-
trapolation of this percentage for other chemical ele- ers: economy and demography along the hydrographic
ments(Tundisietal.,2003),avalueofUSD285,687.66is basin; environmental management, education and poli-
obtained. Dividing this value for the reservoirs “age”, cies,whichmayinfluenceonhowlandisexploredand
75years,“nutrientretentionandinterventiononbio- altered.
geochemicalcycles”ecosystemserviceisestimatedat
USD 3,809.16 per year. High qualitative values were (m)Maintenanceofbiologicaldiversity,(n)mainte-
givenforexistenceandsocialvalues,asbiogeochemical nance of reproduction habitats, (o) genetic resources,
cycling directly affects ecosystem functioning and (p)medicinalresources,(q)food,(r)aquaculture:
humanhealth.Itmustbeobservedthatthestudyofthis Maintenanceofbiologicaldiversity:Wetlandsand
ecosystem service highlights (a) the role of some bio- reservoirsplayanimportantroleinmaintaininghabitats
geochemicalprocessesofwetlands,and(b)theneedto for fauna and flora species not only from their aquatic
repairtheexistentstabilizationpondsinItirapinaMunic- systems,butalsoforresidentandtransientterrestrialspe-
ipalityinordertotreathumanwastewaterbeforedispos- cies.Severalstudiesinthisreservoirhaveregisteredthe
ingitbacktotheriverbasin,asrequiredbyadequatesan- presenceofmanyfloraandfaunaaquaticspecies,rang-
itationandenvironmentalmanagementpolicies. ingfromphytoplankton,zooplanktonandotherinverte-
Direct drivers: Precipitation extremes, land cover bratestomacrophytesandfishes(Peláez-Rodriguezand
and use, and spatial heterogeneity along the hydro- Matsumura-Tundisi,2002;Pereiraet.al,2008;Dellelo,
graphic basin. Agricultural activities, cattle raising and 2008;Luzia,2009).Therearealsorecordsofterrestrial
sandminingonTietê-Jacarébasin,resultinnon-punctual fauna(Motta-Júnior,2008;Sawayaetal.,2008)thatcer-
discharge of organic waste, metal, fertilisers and pesti- tainlyusethereservoirandwetlandsforwater,habitat,
cides residues into water bodies. Wetlands treat effi- foodandbreeding.Itisacomplextasktogiveeconomic
cientlytheorganicandinorganicloads,butifprecipita- valuetobiodiversity.Butitiscertainthatinteractionsbe-
tion events in the basin are scarce, there will be lower tween species and the physical and chemical environ-
dilutionofpollutantsinwater,anexcessinthetreatment mentresultinbiologicalresources(goods)orecosystem
capacityofwetlandsandinconsequencechangesinres- servicesforhumanwelfare.Thevalueofbiodiversitycan
ervoirwaterqualityforhumanrecreation.Spatialhetero- be mapped using species’ richness (Williams et al.,
geneity(vegetationmosaics)alongthehydrographicba- 1997),butquantifyingitintermsofmonetaryvaluemust
sin regulates biogeochemical cycles, influencing water requireamoreelaborateanalysismaybethroughabio-
quality parameters (Tundisi and Matsumura-Tundisi, physicalapproach(Jörgensen,1992;Greenet.al,1994).
2010)oftheUHECarlosBotelhoreservoirwatersupply. Highqualitativeecologicalandsocialvaluesweregiven
Indirectdrivers:Demographyandeconomyalongthe forthe“maintenanceofbiologicaldiversity”service.Itis
hydrographicbasin.Newtechnologiesdevelopedbysci- believedthatalthoughnotquantified,biodiversityrepre-
entificresearchmaybringalternativestoagriculture,cat- sentsasignificantecologicalvaluebecauseitis“aneces-
tle raising and mining, and decrease punctual and sarypreconditionforthelongtermmaintenanceofbio-
non-punctualdischargeofpollutantsintowaterbodies. logical resources” (Wood, 1997), that is, the other
ecosystem services derive from it. In addition, high
(l) Sediment retention, soil formation and fertility scoreswereattributedbecausetheresearchareaispro-
maintenance: Reservoirs retain suspended matter that tectedbylawasa“wildlifezone”(SãoPauloStateDe-
comes from its tributaries (Tundisi and Matsumura- creeNo.20.960,June8thof1983).Biologicaldiversity
Tundisi,1990;Tundisietal.,2008a).Despitesomenega- maintenance also presents potential direct use, produc-
tiveimpacts,theretentionofsuspendedmatterinUHE tiveuseandemploymenteconomicvalues(Agostinhoet
CarlosBotelhoreservoirmayreducedownstreamturbid- al.,2009;AlhoandSabino,2011).
ity, benefitting primary production. In wetlands, reten- Maintenanceofreproductionhabitats:Theland-
tionoforganicmatterandtrapofnutrientsinsediment scapefeaturesofUHECarlosBotelhoreservoirandits
particlesresultinsoilformation,whichmaintainslocal wetlands,theirchemicalconditions,amongstotherchar-
productivity,biodiversityandgoodwaterqualityinthe acteristics,offernurserygroundforthereproductionof
reservoirforhumanwell-being.Ecologicalvalueswere speciesoffaunaandflora,whichcontributesforbiologi-
Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 479
Periotto,NA.andTundisi,JG.
caldiversitymaintenance.“Maintenanceofreproduction (TundisiandMatsumura-Tundisi,2010),andalsoinflu-
habitats”ecosystemservicewasvaluedwithahighscore ence groundwater recharge and the diversity of biota
(twopositivesignals)forecologicalvalues,andwithone species. The more heterogeneous the system is, the
signal for social value as it indirectly affects human highertheprobabilityofhavingseveralecosystemser-
health. vicesbeingoffered(WilsonandPeter,1998).
Geneticresourcesandmedicinalresources:“Ge- Indirect drivers: demography, economy, technol-
netic resources” and “medicinal resources” ecosystem ogy,science,environmentalmanagementandeducation.
servicesareconsequencesoflocalbiodiversity.Foreco-
logicalvaluesofgeneticresourcesservice,twoqualita- (s) Aesthetic and cultural services: Local environ-
tivesignalswereassignedbecausegeneticvariabilityin mentalqualityisofgreatimportanceforaestheticvalues
populationsisimportantforspeciessurvival.Onequali- oftheUHECarlosBotelhoreservoir,becauseitenhances
tativesignalwasattributedforsocialvalueasthisservice recreational values. Aesthetic is an important service
indirectlyaffectshumanhealth.Twoqualitativesignals sinceitmotivatesthepresenceofvisitorsandtheirwell-
were assigned to the existence value of “medicinal re- being.Italsoinfluencesvisitor’sculturalchoices,thatis,
sources” service, for its future value to human popula- how people understand and consume local natural re-
tions.Bothgeneticandmedicinalresourcespresentpo- sources.Itcertainlygenerateslocalconsumptivevalues,
tential social and economic values, if investments in productionandemploymentvalues.Twoqualitativesig-
science are made on molecular genetics and medicinal nalswereassignedtoecological,socialandeconomical
chemistryresearchfocusedonhumanwell-being. values,asapleasinglandscapemaymeananecosystem
Foodavailabilityisalsoaconsequenceofhabitatref- withgoodfunctioningofitsecologicalinteractions.
uge and biodiversity. This service, in UHE Carlos Drivers:Alldirectandindirectdriversconsideredin
Botelho reservoir is represented by small scale fishing other ecosystem services influence reservoir and
(directconsumption)withrarecasesofcommercialex- wetlands environmental quality, altering aesthetic and
ploringasverifiedbyPereiraet.al(2008)butwithdirect culturalvalues.
consumptionvalue.Theecosystemservice“food”pro-
ductionwasvaluedwithtwoqualitativesignalsforeco- (t)Scienceandeducation:ResearchonUHECarlos
logicalandsocialvalues. Botelhoreservoiranditssurroundingareas(includingits
Aquaculture:Fishfarmingoraquacultureisaneco- wetlands) started in 1971 by the Federal University of
systemservicewithpotentialtobedevelopedintheUHE São Carlos - UFSCar (Brazil). In 1976, the Center for
Carlos Botelho reservoir. Angelini and Petrere (1996) Water Resources and Applied Ecology – CRHEA - of
andAngelini(2002)showedthroughEcopathmodelling São Paulo State University (Brazil) made high invest-
software that the reservoir is able to support Piaractus mentsintheCRHEAbuildingconstructionandthenin
mesopotamicusfarmingifefficientlymanagedconcern- researchonclimatology,transportphenomena,hydrau-
ing reservoir water quality. Potential direct use values lics,environmentalpolitics,hydrometry,amongothers.
canbedeveloped,includinghumanhealth,consumption, Apost-graduationprogramatUFSCarwascreatedinthe
productiveuseandemploymentones. same year focusing on studies in this reservoir and its
Direct drivers: Direct drivers for the services re- wetlands on zoology, botany and ecology among other
portedarethefollowing:(1)Landcoverandusealong researchareas,withthesupportofscholarshipsandfo-
Tietê-Jacaré hydrographic basin. Pollutants (pesticides mentation agencies. Approximately R$ 2,000,000.00
andfertilizers)dischargeintowaterbodiesandsandmin- was invested in the CRHEA construction and R$
ingthatincreaseerosionpotential,maychangereservoir 5,500,000.00oninitialresearches(oralcommunication
and wetlands water quality (concerning chemical sub- withProf.Dr.JoséGaliziaTundisi).
stances)andphysicalrefuge(relatedtosedimenttrans- This information service – science and education -
portation)forbiota.(2)Allochtonousfishspeciesintro- wascalculatedbyaddingCRHEAinitialinvestmentsto
duction, which have already been confirmed to have estimatedinvestmentsonpost-graduationscholarshipsat
diminishedreservoirfishspeciesandrecreationalfishing UFSCar. Summing up the CRHEA initial investments
activities.AccordingtoFragosoetal.(2005)thereser- anddividingtheresultbyitsexistencetime(35years)it
voir contains 4 allochtonous fish species: Cyprinus is obtained at approximately R$214,285.71 (USD
carpio, Oreochromis niloticus, Tilapia rendalli and 133,084.31) per year. Assuming that the UFSCar post-
Cichlacf.ocellaris.ItisbelievedthatCichlacf.ocellaris graduation ecology programme has 20 Masters Degree
have eliminated some other fish species by predation; studentsperyearwithscholarshipsofR$1,200,00and15
thisinformationisconfirmedbyfishersreportontheloss Doctorate students per year with scholarships of
offishspecies(Pereiraet.al,2008).(3)Spatialheteroge- R$1,800.00, the estimated value obtained is USD
neity in the hydrographic basin, along upstream water 31,674.06 per year. The sum total of CRHEA and
bodies (to the reservoir), influence water quality, sedi- UFSCarvaluesresultsinUSD164,758.37peryear.Con-
mentandnutrientloadsandenergyfluxesthat flowto sideringthat1/3ofthisvalueisdestinedtosupportem-
wetlands and reservoirs, causing alteration in micro- ployment(valueofscientificpublications),thevaluefor
habitats. Riparian forests, vegetation mosaics and scienceandeducationecosystemserviceisestimatedat
wetlands are buffer systems of the hydrographic basin USD109,838.91peryear(productiveusevalue)inad-
480 Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482