Earth Materials 2nd Edition: Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology PDF
Preview Earth Materials 2nd Edition: Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology
E A R T H M AT E R I A L S Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology This concise, accessible, market-leading textbook brings together the wide- ranging fundamentals students need to understand rocks and minerals, and shows them how they relate to the broader Earth, materials and environmental sciences. Designed specifically for one-semester courses, it is beautifully illustrated in full colour to explain the key concepts in mineralogy and petrology. This revision has been fully updated based on classroom experience. Including a completely new chapter providing an elementary introduction to thermodynamics, kinetics, radioactive decay and absolute dating, this new edition also features new mineral descriptions and many new stunning color photographs. A new section on hydraulic fracturing and discussion of some of its most serious potential environmental consequences has also been added. Stunning photos of mineral specimens and rock thin sections help students build a core understanding, whilst close intergration of clear illustrations with engaging text create a highly effective learning experience. Cornelis (“Kase”) Klein was Professor in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. He received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in geology from McGill University, Canada, and his Ph.D. from Harvard University, also in geology. He was a member of the Geology faculty at Harvard University, Indiana University, Bloomington, and the University of New Mexico: he taught courses in mineralogy at all these universities. His published books include Manual of Mineralogy (19th–21st eds.); Manual of Mineral Science (22nd–23rd eds.); and Minerals and Rocks: Exercises in Crystal and Mineral Chemistry, Crystallography, X- Ray Powder Diffraction, Mineral and Rock Identification, and Ore Mineralogy (3rd ed., 2008). He received two awards for excellence in teaching from the University of New Mexico. Anthony R. Philpotts is Emeritus Professor of Geology and Geophysics at the University of Connecticut, a Visiting Fellow in the Department of Geology and Geophysics at Yale University, and Adjunct Professor in the Department of Geosciences at the University of Massachusetts. He received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in geology from McGill University, Canada, and his Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge. He has taught igneous and metamorphic petrology courses at McGill University and the University of Connecticut for more than 40 years. His published books include Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology (2nd ed., 2009, Cambridge University Press) and Petrography of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks (1989, 2003). Frontispiece: Eruption of Mount Etna, Sicily, December 2015. Credit: Andrea Savoca Andrea Savoca / EyeEm, source Getty. EARTH MATERIALS Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology Cornelis Klein University of New Mexico, Emeritus Anthony R. Philpotts University of Connecticut, Emeritus University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 4843/24, 2nd Floor, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, Delhi – 110002, India 79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107155404 DOI: 10.1017/9781316652909 © Cornelis Klein and A. R. Philpotts 2017 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2013 Second edition 2017 Printed in the United States of America by Sheridan Books, Inc. A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. ISBN 978-1-107-15540-4 Hardback ISBN 978-1-316-60885-2 Paperback Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/earthmaterials2 Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Cover: Polished surface of a deeply weathered breccia with fracture infill of turquoise. Photograph courtesy of David Nufer. Cornelis Klein dedicates this book to his two children and their immediate families. His son and daughter-in-law, Marc and Laura Klein, and their two children, Alaxandra and Hugh. And to his daughter and son-in-law, Stephanie and Jack Stahl, and Stephanie’s three sons, Max, Miles, and Bo Peponis. Anthony R. Philpotts dedicates this book to his three daughters, Liane, Marlaine, and Alison. Contents Preface Acknowledgments to First Edition Acknowledgments to Second Edition 1 Introduction 1.1 Formation of Earth’s Chemical Elements in Supernovae 1.2 Birth of the Solar System and Earth 1.3 Accretion and Early History of the Earth 1.4 Internal Structure of the Earth 1.5 Cooling of the Planet and Plate Tectonics 1.6 Plate tectonics and the formation of rocks 1.6.1 Divergent Plate Boundaries 1.6.2 Convergent Plate Boundaries 1.6.3 Transform Boundaries 1.6.4 Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots 1.7 Outline of subsequent chapters Summary Review Questions Online Resources Further Reading 2 Materials of the Solid Earth 2.1 Definition of a Mineral 2.1.1 Examples of Some Familiar Minerals 2.2 How Are Minerals Classified? 2.3 How Are Minerals Named? 2.4 What Is a Crystal, and What Is the Crystalline State? 2.5 What Is a Rock? 2.6 How Do Rocks Form? Classification into Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic 2.7 Examples of Some Familiar Rocks 2.8 Plate Tectonics and the Generation of Rocks 2.8.1 Midocean-ridge Rock Factory 2.8.2 Convergent-plate-boundary Rock Factory 2.8.3 Continental Divergent-plate-boundary Rock Factory (Rift Valley) 2.8.4 Mantle Plume Hot-spot Rock Factory 2.8.5 Passive-margin Rock Factories 2.8.6 Epeiric-sea Rock Factories 2.8.7 Metamorphic Rock Factories Summary Review Questions Online Resources Further Reading 3 How are Minerals Identified? 3.1 Habit 3.2 State of Aggregation 3.3 Color and Luster 3.3.1 Reasons for Color 3.4 Cleavage 3.5 Hardness 3.6 Specific Gravity (Relative Density) 3.6.1 Specific Gravity and Atomic Structure 3.7 Magnetism, Solubility in Acid, and Radioactivity 3.8 Instrumental Methods for the Quantitative Characterization of Minerals 3.8.1 X-Ray Powder Diffraction 3.8.2 Electron Beam Techniques: Scanning Electron Microscopy, Electron Microprobe Analysis, and Transmission Electron Microscopy Summary Review Questions Further Reading 4 Fundamentals of Crystal Structures 4.1 Naturally Occurring Chemical Elements 4.2 Atomic and Ionic Radii 4.3 What Factors Control the Packing of Ions (and Atoms) in Mineral Structures? 4.4 Pauling’s Rules 4.5 What Forces Hold Crystal Structures Together? 4.5.1 Electronic Configuration of Atoms and Ions 4.5.2 Chemical Bonding 4.6 Atomic Substitutions 4.6.1 Factors Responsible for the Extent of Atomic Substitution (Solid Solution) 4.6.2 Types of Solid Solution Summary Review Questions Further Reading 5 Introduction to Crystallography 5.1 Symmetry Elements and Operations 5.2 Combinations of Symmetry Elements 5.3 The Six Crystal Systems 5.3.1 Crystallographic Axes 5.3.2 Hermann–Mauguin Symmetry Notation 5.3.3 Crystallographic Notation for Planes in Crystals 5.3.4 Definition of Crystal Form 5.3.5 Crystallographic Notation for Directions in Crystals 5.4 Crystal Projections 5.5 Seven of the Thirty-two Point Groups 5.6 Twins 5.7 Some Aspects of Space Groups 5.7.1 Space Groups 5.8 Polymorphism Summary Review Questions Further Reading 6 Minerals and Rocks Observed under the Polarizing Optical Microscope 6.1 Light and the Polarizing Microscope 6.2 Passage of Light through a Crystal: Refractive Index and Angle of Refraction 6.3 Passage of Polarized Light through Minerals 6.4 Accessory Plates and Determination of Fast and Slow Vibration Directions 6.5 Extinction Positions and the Sign of Elongation 6.6 Anomalous Interference Colors, Pleochroism, and Absorption 6.7 Mineral Identification Chart 6.8 Uniaxial Optical Indicatrix 6.9 Biaxial Optical Indicatrix 6.10 Uniaxial Interference Figures 6.11 Determination of Optic Sign from Uniaxial Optic Axis Figure 6.12 Biaxial Interference Figures, Optic Sign, and Optic Angle (2V) 6.13 Modal analysis Summary Review Questions Online Resources Further Reading 7 Igneous Rock-forming Minerals 7.1 Common Chemical Elements in the Earth’s Crust and in Mineral and Rock Analyses 7.2 Calculation of Mineral Formulas 7.3 Triangular Diagrams 7.4 Systematic Mineralogical Descriptions of Common Igneous Minerals 7.5 Plagioclase feldspar 7.6 K-feldspar 7.7 Quartz and silica polymorphs 7.8 Nepheline 7.9 Leucite 7.10 Sodalite 7.11 Enstatite 7.12 Pigeonite 7.13 Augite 7.14 Aegirine 7.15 Hornblende 7.16 Muscovite 7.17 Phlogopite 7.18 Biotite 7.19 Olivine 7.20 Zircon 7.21 Tourmaline 7.22 Allanite 7.23 Melilite 7.24 Magnetite 7.25 Chromite 7.26 Hematite 7.27 Ilmenite 7.28 Rutile 7.29 Uraninite 7.30 Pyrite 7.31 Pyrrhotite 7.32 Chalcopyrite 7.33 Apatite Summary Review Questions Further Reading 8 The Direction and Rate of Natural Processes: An Introduction to Thermodynamics and Kinetics 8.1 Basic Thermodynamic Terms 8.2 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics 8.3 Entropy and the Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics 8.4 Gibbs Free Energy 8.5 Variation of Gibbs Free Energy with Temperature and Pressure 8.6 Variation of Gibbs Free Energy with Composition 8.7 Thermodynamic Equilibrium 8.8 Thermodynamic Phase Diagrams 8.9 Multicomponent Phase Diagrams 8.9.1 A Simple Two-component System H2O–NaCl 8.9.2 Melting of a Pair of Minerals: the Eutectic 8.9.3 Congruent Melting and the Granite and Nepheline Syenite Eutectics 8.9.4 Incongruent Melting and the Peritectic 8.9.5 Melting Relations of Solid Solutions 8.9.6 A Simple Ternary Phase Diagram 8.9.7 The Ternary Quartz–Albite–Orthoclase “Granite” System 8.9.8 A Simple Ternary Basalt System: Diopside–Albite–Anorthite 8.9.9 More Complex Phase Diagrams 8.10 Rates of Geologic Processes 8.10.1 Transport Laws 8.10.2 Rates of Activated Processes and the Arrhenius Relation 8.11 Radioactive Decay 8.11.1 Rate of Radioactive Decay 8.11.2 Calculation of Absolute Age Based on Radioactive Decay
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