Dynamics of Skill Acquisition: A Constraints-Led Approach

264 Pages·2007·5.38 MB·English

by  Keith Davids

Dynamics
of

Skill
Acquisition
a constraints-Led approach
Keith Davids, PhD
Queensland university of technology, australia

Chris Button, PhD
university of otago, new zealand
Simon Bennett, PhD
liverpool john moores university, united Kingdom
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Human Kinetics
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Davids, K. (Keith), 1953-
Dynamics of skill acquisition : a constraints-led approach / Keith
Davids, Chris Button, Simon Bennett.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-3686-3 (hard cover)
ISBN-10: 0-7360-3686-5 (hard cover)
1. Physical education and training. 2. Physical education and
training--Psychological aspects. 3. Movement, Psychology of. 4.
Human mechanics. 5. Physical fitness. I. Button, Chris, 1973- II.
Bennett, Simon, 1970- III. Title.
GV342.D28 2008
372.86--dc22 2007020516
ISBN-10: 0-7360-3686-5 (print) ISBN-10: 0-7360-9005-3 (Adobe PDF)
ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-3686-3 (print) ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-9005-6 (Adobe PDF)
Copyright © 2008 by Keith Davids, Christopher Button, and Simon Bennett
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This book is dedicated to the ultimate self-organizing
social system, my family: my wife, Anna, and my children,
Mike, Jake, Charlie, and India
Keith Davids
For all the researchers past and present whose work has
inspired the ideas developed in this book and unknow-
ingly shaped our own academic pursuits
Chris Button
To the many individuals I have had the pleasure and
fortune to work with, read of, and listen to, this book is
a testament to your efforts and dedication
Simon Bennett

CONTENTS
Preface vii
Acknowledgments xi
PART I Introduction to Skill Acquisition Theory
and the Constraints-Led Approach . . . . . . . . . . 1
CHAPTER 1 Traditional Theories of Skill Acquisition . . . . . . . . . .3
Skill Acquisition: Definition and Theories 4
Common Features of Traditional Theories 17
Implications for Movement Practitioners 21
Summary 27
CHAPTER 2 Physical Constraints on Coordination:
Dynamical Systems Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Complex Systems: A Definition 30
Constraints on Complex Systems 32
Emergent Behavior in Human Movement 36
Constraints and Movement Coordination 39
Interacting Constraints 42
Coordination Processes in Human Movement Systems 43
Functional Role of Variability in Movement Systems 48

Summary 51
CHAPTER 3 Informational Constraints on Coordination:
An Ecological Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Ecological Psychology and Information 56
Information–Movement Coupling 65
Haptic Information Constraints on Movement 73
Acoustic Information Constraints on Movement 75
Summary 78
CHAPTER 4 Redefining Learning:
A Constraints-Led Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
The Perceptual-Motor Landscape 82
Newell’s Model of Motor Learning 85
Practical Issues for Learning 94
Role of the Movement Practitioner: Nonlinear Pedagogy 98
Hands-Off Practitioners 99
Summary 101
v
PART II Applying the Constraints-Led Approach. . . . 105
CHAPTER 5 Understanding the Dynamics
of Skill Acquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Constructing the Perceptual-Motor Landscape 108
The Practitioner’s Perspective 117
Summary 126
CHAPTER 6 Dealing With Individual Differences:
Implications for a Nonlinear Pedagogy. . . . . . . . .129
Intrinsic Dynamics of the Movement System 130
Variation in Athletic Performance 133
Individual Differences in Practical Settings 141
Developing Decision-Making Skills 147
Summary 150
CHAPTER 7 Organizing Practice to Optimize Learning . . . . . .153
The Constraint of Time in Practice 154
Manipulating Task Constraints in Practice 157
Strategies for Structuring Practice 164
Summary 169
CHAPTER 8 Using Verbal Guidance as an Informational
Constraint on Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Effectiveness of Verbal Communication Strategies 174
Verbal Communication as a Temporary Informational Constraint 178
Attentional Focus and Verbal Communication 178
Interaction of Verbal Instructions and Feedback 184
Verbal Communication and Movement Disorders 186
Summary 187
CHAPTER 9 Observational Learning as Directed Search . . . . .189
Directed Search and Observational Learning 190
Observational Learning in Social Contexts 192
Visual Perception Perspective on Observational Learning 194
Learner-Regulated Video Feedback 202
Summary 204
CHAPTER 10 Implementing the Constraints-Led Approach:
Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
Practice and an External Focus of Attention 208
Dynamics of Learning the Soccer Chip 210
Individual Differences in Amputee Gait 212
Practice Organization for Soldiers 215
Instructions for Student Drivers 217
Modeling to Direct Students’ Learning 219
Glossary 223 References 227 Index 247 About the Authors 251
vi Contents
PREFACE
Actions in daily activities such as sport and work differ in the nature of the
demands they impose on performers. Some actions, like racket sports or driv-
ing on an expressway, are performed at high speeds, and others, like rugby,
American football, martial arts, and physical therapy, may involve a significant
amount of body contact. Many actions require a high degree of precision and
accuracy of movement, such as playing golf or performing surgery, whereas
others, like ballet dancing and ice-skating, emphasize the challenge of perform-
ing graceful, stylized sequences of aesthetic movement. Many activities pit us
against the wild elements of nature when hiking, mountaineering, kayaking,
or skiing. Despite the huge variety of constraints imposed by various sports
and daily activities, one thing they all share is a requirement for performers
to coordinate and control movements effectively.
Movement practitioners in various physical activities understand that skilled
learners are able to
(cid:129) produce functional, efficient, and effective movement patterns that
appear smooth and effortless;
(cid:129) typically demonstrate precise timing between their movements and
ongoing environmental events;
(cid:129) consistently reproduce patterns of coordinated movement, even under
severe time constraints or competitive pressures;
(cid:129) perform movements that are not automated in the sense of being identical

from one performance to the next, but are subtly varied and precisely
adapted to immediate changes in the environment; and
(cid:129) integrate different limb movements into an aesthetically pleasing pattern
when necessary.
Purpose of the Book
Humans operate in information-rich, dynamic environments and require
complex coordination patterns to interact with important surfaces, objects,
and events. An important challenge for movement scientists is to understand
how coordination patterns are assembled, controlled, and acquired. In recent
years there has been an increasing interest in the constraints that shape and
influence the acquisition of movement skills. Our purpose in this book is to
synthesize and elucidate a constraints-led approach to skill acquisition.
The study of human movement now bridges many related disciplines, includ-
ing motor development, motor control, psychology, biology, motor impairments,
vii
and physical therapy. Although we attempt to apply our discussion of move-
ment as broadly as possible throughout this book, we will often use movement
models from sport, exercise, and physical activities as examples to describe
key ideas. As sport enthusiasts ourselves, we recognize that movement models
from sport can provide particularly rich task constraints in which to study and
understand important aspects of movement behavior (Davids, Button, Araújo,
Renshaw, & Hristovski, 2006). One of the main objectives of physical educators,
sport scientists, movement scientists, psychologists, and physiotherapists is to
develop valid conceptual models of human movement behavior that is based
on research (Post, Pijpers, Bosch, & Boschker, 1998). The development of a
comprehensive model of motor control is necessary before one can consider
issues related to learning, but this in itself is not a simple task because “the story
of even a simple movement will have intentional, mechanical, informational,
neural and muscular chapters” (Michaels, 1998, p. 65). It is becoming clear that
a rigorous model of human movement requires a multidisciplinary framework
to capture the different interlocking scales of analysis (e.g., neural, behavioral,
psychological) and the many different subsystems (e.g., perceptual and move-
ment) involved in producing behavior.
From a practical perspective, understanding how coordination and control
is achieved promotes an informed organization of learning and rehabilitation
environments and more effective use of practice and therapy time (Davids &
Handford, 1994). Studying these processes in human movement systems is
vital for considering issues involved in
(cid:129) ergonomic equipment design;
(cid:129) organizing and structuring coaching, teaching, and training tasks;
(cid:129) planning and managing exercise prescription, therapeutic, and rehabili-
tation programs;
(cid:129) preventing injury and associated health and safety considerations;
(cid:129) understanding the nature of individual differences at various levels of
performance;
(cid:129) understanding how to transmit information to learners and patients in
rehabilitation;
(cid:129) getting a feel for children’s movement capabilities at various stages of
development; and
(cid:129) interpreting movement disabilities and disorders and their effects on
perceptual-motor function.
A conceptual model of coordination and control is not just important for
designing learning environments, it is also important for ensuring that learn-
ers have positive experiences when acquiring motor skills. Given the alarm
expressed at the lack of physical activity and poor movement competency
viii Preface
shown in affluent societies (Our Healthy Nation Report, UK Government,
1999; World Health Organization report, 2002; Healthy Eating Healthy Action,
New Zealand Ministry of Health Report, 2003), this type of knowledge is vital
for the design of physical activity programs to provide the basic skills neces-
sary for subelite sport and exercise participation (see also Clark, 1995). The
goal of this book is to outline a reliable and comprehensive model of human
movement to provide a valid framework (i.e., concepts, methodological tools,
and language) through which students and practitioners can understand and
address these issues.
Organization
This book is divided in two parts to facilitate understanding of theoretical and
practical concepts. In part I, we describe the theoretical basis of a constraints-
led learner model that has emerged within the literature on motor learning.
Part II provides several practical implications of the constraints-led approach.
We will discuss the relationship between the theoretical concepts introduced in
part I and the practical concerns facing the learner and movement practitioner.
In part II, we will attempt to bring the constraints-led model to life, especially
in chapter 10, where a number of case studies are highlighted.
Audience
This book is written for people with an interest in movement coordination
and control and skill acquisition. This includes movement scientists, sport
scientists, psychologists, b iomechanists, physiologists, coaches, teachers,
physical educators, and physical therapists. Advanced undergraduates with
a firm grounding in the traditional theories of motor behavior, beginning
postgraduates, and academic faculty will all benefit from an understanding
of ecological constraints on movement behavior.
The book contains an introduction to many key theoretical ideas that will
enhance practical applications. For this purpose, we use examples throughout
and case studies in chapter 10 to show how theoretical advances in the natural
sciences can help our understanding of the acquisition of movement coordina-
tion. Spotlight on Research sidebars and additional readings are presented in
each chapter to help readers understand how interacting constraints shape
movement behavior. Readers are encouraged to use these features to enhance
their learning experience.
Preface ix