Dynamics of Plate Tectonics and Mantle Convection PDF
Preview Dynamics of Plate Tectonics and Mantle Convection
DYNAMICS OF PLATE TECTONICS AND MANTLE CONVECTION DYNAMICS OF PLATE TECTONICS AND MANTLE CONVECTION Editedby JOA˜O C. DUARTE AssistantProfessor,UniversityofLisbon,Lisbon,Portugal; Researcher,FacultyofSciences,InstitutoDomLuiz,UniversityofLisbon,Lisbon,Portugal Elsevier Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates Copyright©2023ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,including photocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Details onhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizations suchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions. 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ISBN:978-0-323-85733-8 ForinformationonallElsevierpublications visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:CandiceG.Janco AcquisitionsEditor:AmyM.Shapiro EditorialProjectManager:HelenaBeauchamp ProductionProjectManager:RashmiManoharan CoverDesigner:ChristianJ.Bilbow TypesetbySTRAIVE,India Contributors DavidBercovici DepartmentofEarthandPlanetary Rakib Hassan EarthByte Group, School of Geos- Sciences,YaleUniversity,NewHaven,CT,United ciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, States NSW; Geoscience Australia, Canberra, ACT, Magali I. Billen Department of Earth and Australia Planetary Sciences, UC Davis, Davis, CA, United M.J. Hoggard Research School of Earth Sciences, States The Australian National University, Acton, ACT, DorisBreuer DLR,InstituteofPlanetaryResearch, Australia Berlin,Germany Shun-ichiroKarato DepartmentofEarthandPlan- Sascha Brune Helmholtz Centre Potsdam—GFZ etary Sciences, Yale University, New Haven, CT, German Research Centre for Geosciences, Pots- UnitedStates dam; Institute of Geosciences, University of Pots- DerekKeir UniversitadegliStudidiFirenze,Dipar- dam,Potsdam-Golm,Germany timentodiScienzedellaTerra,Florence,Italy;Uni- Susanne J.H. Buiter Tectonics and Geodynamics, versityofSouthampton,SchoolofOceanandEarth RWTH Aachen University, Aachen; Helmholtz Science,Southampton,UnitedKingdom Centre Potsdam—GFZ German Research Centre MatthewG.Knepley ComputerScienceandEngi- forGeosciences,Potsdam,Germany neering,UniversityatBuffalo,Buffalo,NY,United Nicolas Coltice Laboratoire de G(cid:1)eologie, E(cid:1)cole States Normale Sup(cid:1)erieure, CNRS UMR 8538, PSL AdrianLenardic DepartmentofEarthScience,Rice ResearchUniversity,Paris,France University,Houston,TX,UnitedStates D.R. Davies Research School of Earth Sciences, DiogoL.Lourenc¸o DepartmentofEarthandPlane- The Australian National University, Acton, ACT, taryScience,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,CA, Australia United States; Department of Geographic Engi- Joa˜o C. Duarte Faculty of Sciences, Instituto Dom neering, Geophysics and Energy, Faculty of Sci- Luiz,UniversityofLisbon,Lisbon,Portugal ences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal; Department of Earth Sciences, Institute of Geo- Taras V. Gerya Department of Earth Sciences, physics,ETHZurich,Zurich,Switzerland ETH-Zurich,Zurich,Switzerland SarahJ.MacLeod EarthByteGroup,SchoolofGeos- S.Ghelichkhan ResearchSchoolofEarthSciences, ciences,UniversityofSydney,Camperdown,NSW, The Australian National University, Acton, ACT, Australia Australia DaveA.May InstituteofGeophysicsandPlanetary RichardG.Gordon DepartmentofEarth,Environ- Physics, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, mental and Planetary Sciences, Rice University, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, Houston,TX,UnitedStates UnitedStates MichaelGurnis SeismologicalLaboratory,Califor- Louis Moresi Research School of Earth Sciences, niaInstituteofTechnology,Pasadena,CA,United The Australian National University, Canberra, States ACT,Australia xi xii Contributors JasonP.Morgan SUSTech,Shenzhen,China Johnny Seales Department of Earth Science, Rice R. Dietmar Mu€ller EarthByte Group, School of University,Houston,TX,UnitedStates Geosciences,UniversityofSydney,Camperdown, AlishaSteinberger BRONStudios,Vancouver,BC, NSW,Australia Canada ElviraMulyukova DepartmentofEarthandPlane- BernhardSteinberger GFZGermanResearchCen- tarySciences,NorthwesternUniversity,Evanston, tre for Geosciences, Potsdam, Germany; CEED, IL,UnitedStates UniversityofOslo,Oslo,Norway TakashiNakagawa DepartmentofEarthandPlan- RobertJ.Stern GeosciencesDepartment,University etarySystemScience,HiroshimaUniversity,Higa- ofTexasatDallas,Richardson,TX,UnitedStates shihiroshima,Japan;Previousaffiliation:Schoolof Pietro Sternai Department of Earth and Environ- Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, mental Sciences (DISAT), University of Milano- Leeds, United Kingdom; Department of Planetol- Bicocca,Milano,Italy ogy,KobeUniversity,Kobe,Japan PaulJ.Tackley DepartmentofEarthSciences,ETH Jean-Arthur Olive Laboratoire de G(cid:1)eologie, Zurich,Zu€rich,Switzerland CNRS—Ecole Normale Sup(cid:1)erieure—PSL Univer- A.P. Valentine Department of Earth Sciences, sity,Paris,France Durham University, Lower Mountjoy, Durham, Gwenn Peron-Pinvidic Geological Survey of UnitedKingdom Norway (NGU);Norwegian University ofScience Paola Vannucchi University of Florence, Florence; andTechnology(NTNU),Trondheim,Norway National Institute of Oceanography and Applied C(cid:1)esarR.Ranero ICM-CSIC,Barcelona,Spain Geophysics,Trieste,Italy F.D. Richards Department of Earth Science and Simon E. Williams EarthByte Group, School of Engineering, Imperial College London, South Geosciences, University of Sydney, Camper- Kensington,London,UnitedKingdom down, NSW, Australia; Department of Geology, Antoine B. Rozel Department of Earth Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, Institute of Geophysics, ETH Zurich, Zurich, China Switzerland Masaki Yoshida Volcanoes and Earth’s Interior W.P. Schellart Department of Earth Sciences, Research Center, Research Institute for Marine Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Geodynamics; Agency for Marine-Earth Science Netherlands andTechnology(JAMSTEC),Yokosuka,Japan Preface Plate tectonics is the unifying theory of the we have learned so far, where we are now, solid Earth that describes the surface of our and what are thefuture challenges. planet as being fragmented into rigid plates Editingthisbookwasoneofthebestprofes- that move in relation to each other. Many fun- sional experiences I ever had. It was fun and damental geological processes, such as earth- exciting,anditwasaprivilege.Itwasaprivilege quakes, volcanism, and the formation of toworkwithalltheauthorstoproducethisfinal mountains, occur at the plates’ boundaries. In product.Thisisyourbook.Imustthankyouall its initial formulation, plate tectonics was a for having accepted my invitation to be part of kinematictheorythatdescribedandquantified this project. I have learned so much from all of these movements and associated deformation. you and Iam sure the reader will too. (cid:1) Plate tectonics evolved into a dynamic theory, I thank my family, Noemie, Maria de describingtheforcesdrivingthesurfacedefor- Lourdes, Joaquim, Helena, Pedro, Diogo, and mationandtheinternaldynamicsofourplanet. Manuela,fortheconstantsupport.Ialsothank We also came to realize that plate tectonics is mycolleaguesFilipeRosas,NicolasRiel,Wou- only one of the possible tectono-magmatic ter Schellart, Mattias Green, Hannah Davies, styles in which a planet can operate and that Anto´nio Ribeiro, Marc-Andr(cid:1)e Gutscher, Pedro these can change over time. In the past years, Terrinha, Ricardo Trigo, Pedro Miranda, Rui the geosciences community has started to Dias, Vasco Valadares, Henrique Duarte, developatheorythatintegratesplatetectonics MichaelWay,ChristianHensen,SantanuBose, and mantle convection as part of a single DiogoLourenc¸o,SusanaCusto´dio,Lu´ısMatias, system. This was possible because of the Taras Gerya, Sierd Cloetingh, Catherine Mer- ever-increasinghigh-qualityimagingofEarth’s iaux, David Boutelier, Alexander Cruden, Jac- interiorandourcomputationalcapabilities.But ques Malavieille, Paola Vannucchi, Jason while the progress has been enormous, there P. Morgan, Susanne Buiter, Vincent Strak, are still many uncertainties and challenges ChiaraCiviero,So´niaSilva,Lu´ısPinheiro,Luis ahead. Matias,VitorMagalha˜es,MartaNeres,Nathan Ihaveaskedsomeoftheleadingscientistsin Mayne,Joa˜oMata,SophieWilmes,StevenBal- thefieldtowriteperspectivereviewpapersfrom bus, Chris MacLeod, Cristina Roque, Jaime thevantagepointoftheirwork.Theideawasto Almeida, Zhihao Chen, and many other col- capturethestateoftheartofourunderstanding leagues with whom I have learned and dis- of the dynamics of plate tectonics and mantle cussed so much over the years. A special convection. I hope this book can glimpse what thanks to the Faculty of Sciences of the xiii xiv Preface UniversityofLisbon,theGeologyDepartment, understand the dynamics of plate tectonics (cid:1) the Instituto Dom Luiz (IDL), and Celia Lee and mantle convection. forprovidingmewiththegroundstobuildthis Joa˜o C. Duarte project.Ialsowould liketo thankNicolasCol- University of Lisbon tice for producing the incredible cover image 30 September 2022 that perfectly captures the efforts in trying to C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to Dynamics of Plate Tectonics and Mantle Convection Joa˜o C. Duarte Faculty ofSciences, Instituto Dom Luiz, University ofLisbon, Lisbon, Portugal Agoodwaytostartabookprojectistothink Onecannottellexactlywhenitallstarted,butitis ofabookthecommunitywouldliketoread.But quite amazing that the cartographer Abraham that is not enough. One must also understand Ortelius noted in 1596 that the margins of the the community needs and make sure the book Atlantic fitted like a puzzle. One can’t imagine istimely.AsIwilltrytoexplain,weareunder- whatcrossedOrtelius’mind,butin1858,Anto- going a key moment in our comprehension of nio Snider-Pellegrini drew a “supercontinent” plate tectonics and mantle convection. To help fitting Europe and Africa with the Americas. usunderstandwherewecamefromandwhere While Snider-Pellegrini did not have a compel- wearegoing,Iaskedanumberofexpertsinthe lingscientifictheorytoexplainit,thiswasabold fieldtowriteperspectivepapersfromtheirvan- statement, suggesting that large portions of the tagepointand,wheneverpossible,totellastory, planet’s surface have moved thousands of either their story or the story of an idea. The kilometers. Yet, it was only a few decades later bookthatthereaderhasinfrontisacombination that Alfred Wegener put together evidence to of perspective and review papers dealing with sustain this hypothesis, which became known some of the most exciting and timely topics as the continental drift theory (Wegener, 1929). in the field of plate tectonics and mantle Probably Wegener was not aware of it, but this convection. wasthefirstrevolutioninthesolidearthsciences. Plate tectonics is a relatively young theory It completely revolutionized how we looked at comparedtoDarwin’stheoryofevolution,Ein- and interpreted geological processes. Notwith- stein’stheoryofgeneralrelativity,orthetheory standing,atthetimeitprobablyfeltmorelikea of quantum mechanics by Bohr. But it did not controversy than a real revolution. Most of his come out of nowhere. Very few things do in peersstronglycontestedtheidea.Afterall,how science. The Greeks and other ancient civiliza- couldcontinentsmoveoversolidoceaniccrust? tions had theories about the Earth, trying to Duringthefollowingyears,afewearthscien- explaintheoriginsofearthquakesandvolcanoes. tiststooktheideaseriouslyandstartedworking DynamicsofPlateTectonicsandMantleConvection 1 Copyright#2023ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85733-8.00005-6
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