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199 Pages·2010·2.29 MB·English

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SOURCE (OR PART OF THE FOLLOWING SOURCE):
Type PhD thesis
Title Assessing acceptance of assistive social robots by aging adults
Author(s) M. Heerink
Faculty FNWI: Informatics Institute (II)
Year 2010
FULL BIBLIOGRAPHIC DETAILS:
  http://hdl.handle.net/11245/1.327918
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ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT

ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor
aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam
op gezag van de Rector Magnificus
prof. dr. D.C. van den Boom
ten overstaan van een door het college voor promoties ingestelde
commissie, in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Aula der Universiteit
op woensdag 3 november 2010, te 10.00 uur

door Marcel Heerink

geboren te Rheden
Promotor: prof. dr. B.J. Wielinga

Co-promotores: dr. ir. B.J.A. Kröse
dr. V. Evers

Overige leden: prof. dr. K. Dautenhahn
prof. dr. ir. F.C.A. Groen
prof. dr. L. Hardman
prof. dr. M. A. Neerincx
prof. dr. L. P. de Witte

Faculteit der Natuurwetenschappen, Wiskunde en Informatica

This research was supported in part by the Hogeschool van Amsterdam,
University of Applied Sciences (HvA) and in part by the European Commission
Division FP6-IST Future and Emerging Technologies under Contract FP6-
002020 (Cogniron).
Acknowledgements

This thesis and the underlying research would not have been possible without
the support and friendship of many people and institutions. First of all, I worked
with three fascinating and inspiring people: Bob Wielinga, Ben Kröse and
Vanessa Evers. They guided me in many ways, the past few years.

Furthermore, I would like to express my gratitude to the staff and caretakers as
well as the test participants of De Kiekendief, De Overloop and De Archipel in
Almere, De Uiterton in Lelystad and De Emtinckhof in Loosdrecht for their trust
and cooperation. Also, I am extremely grateful for those participants who were
willing to receive us at their homes and let us mess with their computers.

Also I would like to thank Wouter van Gils, Willem Notten, Bas Terwijn and
Rogier Voors for their work on programming the iCat system, Nicolai Sequeira
Geraldes and Tormo Antonides for their work on Annie and Susanne Roelofs,
Hatice Çal, Rick van Midde, Albert van Breemen and Martin Saerbeck for their
support. In addition, I like to thank my colleagues at the Information
Engineering Institute and the people at HCS for their encouragement. And I
thank Tonnie Triezenberg for making the whole project possible in the first
place.

Moreover I wish to thank Ruud Smeulders, Rabobank Foundation, Netrex and
Fons Kuijk of CWI for enabling us to work with Steffie and develop Annie, and
Frederico Pecora for the RoboCare materials.

Furthermore, I am eternally gratefull to Irma van der Puijl for helping me make
this a readable text and to Heidi, Lennart, Wietse and Eline for their support
and patience.

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Contents

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. iii
Publications .............................................................................................................. ix
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Assessing acceptance… ................................................................................... 1
1.2 Motivation: a demographic shift ..................................................................... 1
1.3 Assistive companions ...................................................................................... 3
1.4 The issue of acceptance ................................................................................... 4
1.5 Focus of this study .......................................................................................... 5
1.6 Approach and outline ...................................................................................... 7
2. Robots and acceptance by elderly users ............................................................... 9
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Social and assistive robots .............................................................................. 9
2.3 Overview of user studies on assistive social robots ..................................... 15
2.4 User acceptance studies ................................................................................ 18
2.4.1 Basics of technology acceptance modeling ............................................. 19
2.4.2 Further development of TAM ................................................................. 20
2.4.3 UTAUT .................................................................................................... 21
2.4.4 Statistical techniques ............................................................................. 24
2.5 Acceptance studies concerning robots .......................................................... 26
2.6 Social acceptance, credible skills and conversational behavior .................. 27
2.7 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 28
3. Measuring the influence of social abilities I ...................................................... 31
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 31
3.2 Social characteristics, social abilities and acceptance ................................. 32
3.3 Hypotheses .................................................................................................... 33
3.4 Used systems ................................................................................................. 34
3.4.1 iCat .......................................................................................................... 35
3.4.2 Annie ....................................................................................................... 35
3.4.3 Embodiment of social abilities for the used systems ............................ 36
3.5 Pilot study: lessons learned .......................................................................... 39
3.6 Experimental methods .................................................................................. 41
3.6.1 Subjects ................................................................................................... 41
3.6.2 Procedure ................................................................................................ 42
3.6.3 Questionnaire ......................................................................................... 43
3.6.4 Behavior observation .............................................................................. 45
3.6.5 Wizard of Oz ............................................................................................ 46
3.7 Results of experiments 1 and 2 ..................................................................... 47
3.7.1 Questionnaire ......................................................................................... 48
3.7.2 Behavior observation .............................................................................. 51
3.7.3 Correlations and regression ................................................................... 52
3.7.4 Evaluation of additional constructs ....................................................... 55
3.8 Discussion ...................................................................................................... 57
3.9 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 58
4. Developing a new model I ................................................................................... 59
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 59
v
4.2 Strategy ......................................................................................................... 59
4.3 A further evaluation of experiments 1 and 2 ............................................... 61
4.3.1 Implications of previous analyses .......................................................... 61
4.3.2 Construct suggestions from principal component analysis .................. 62
4.3.3 Additional calculations and conclusions ................................................ 64
4.4 Constructs for a new model .......................................................................... 66
4.4.1 Maintained constructs ............................................................................ 67
Perceived Ease of Use and Perceived Usefulness ....................................... 67
Attitude ........................................................................................................ 68
Social Influence ............................................................................................ 68
Anxiety ......................................................................................................... 68
Facilitating conditions ................................................................................. 69
4.4.2 New constructs ........................................................................................ 69
Trust ............................................................................................................. 69
Perceived Enjoyment ................................................................................... 69
Perceived Sociability .................................................................................... 70
4.4.3 Additional constructs .............................................................................. 71
Perceived adaptivity .................................................................................... 71
Social Presence ............................................................................................. 72
4.4.4 Moderating factors .................................................................................. 73
4.5 Model overview .............................................................................................. 74
4.6 Instruments: questionnaire and user observation ....................................... 76
4.7 Experimental testing .................................................................................... 78
5. Measuring the influence of social abilities II .................................................... 79
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 79
5.2. Revisiting the hypothesized influence of social abilities ............................ 79
5.3 Experiment .................................................................................................... 80
5.3.1 Method .................................................................................................... 81
Subjects ........................................................................................................ 81
Procedure ...................................................................................................... 82
Instruments .................................................................................................. 82
5.3.2 Model test results ................................................................................... 82
5.3.3 Model test conclusions ............................................................................ 85
5.4 Observing conversational expressiveness .................................................... 86
5.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 86
5.4.2 Behavior analysis methodology .............................................................. 87
5.4.3 Analysis ................................................................................................... 87
5.4.4 Behavior analysis conclusions ................................................................ 89
5.5 Discussion ...................................................................................................... 89
6. Exploring adaptiveness, adaptability and user control .................................... 91
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 91
6.2 Focus within the model ................................................................................. 93
6.3 Method ........................................................................................................... 95
6.3.1 System ..................................................................................................... 95
6.3.2 Participants ............................................................................................. 97
6.3.3 Procedure ................................................................................................ 97
6.3.4 Questionnaire adaptation....................................................................... 97
6.4 Results ........................................................................................................... 98
6.5 Conclusions .................................................................................................. 106
7. Usage experiments ........................................................................................... 109
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 109
7.2 Rationale and hypotheses ........................................................................... 109
7.3 Experiment 5: actual use in a public setting ............................................. 110
7.3.1 Subjects ................................................................................................. 111
7.3.2 Procedure .............................................................................................. 112
7.3.3 Results ................................................................................................... 112
7.4 Experiment 6: actual use in a private setting ............................................ 115
7.4.1 Participants ........................................................................................... 116
7.4.2 Procedure .............................................................................................. 116
7.4.3 Results ................................................................................................... 116
7.5 Combined results......................................................................................... 120
7.6 Moderating factors ...................................................................................... 122
7.7 Conclusions .................................................................................................. 123
8. Developing a new model II ............................................................................... 127
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 127
8.2 Evaluating experimental results ................................................................ 127
8.3 Combined results......................................................................................... 131
8.4 Path analysis ............................................................................................... 133
8.5 Conclusions .................................................................................................. 136
9. Summarized findings and final conclusions .................................................... 139
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 139
9.2 Reflection on the research questions .......................................................... 139
9.3 Main contributions ...................................................................................... 140
9.4 Discussion and further research ................................................................. 142
Samenvatting (Dutch summary) .......................................................................... 145
References ............................................................................................................. 149
Appendix A – Overview of assistive social robots for older adults ..................... 165
Appendix B – Overview user studies concerning assistive social robots ........... 175
Appendix C – Overview of experiments ............................................................... 177
Appendix D - UTAUT questionnaire ................................................................... 178
Appendix E – Almere model comprehensive toolkit ............................................ 179

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