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T
R
O
P
Buildings End-Use
Energy Efficiency
E
R COMMERCIAL
THERMAL
T
DISTRIBUTION
N
SYSTEMS
A
T
L
U
S
Gray Davis, Governor
N
STAT E OF CALIFORNIA OCTOBER 1999
CALIFORNIA
O
ENERGY
COMMISSION
C ENERGY COMMISSION
RESOURCES AGENCY P600-00-004

Legal Notice
This report was prepared as a result of work sponsored by the California Energy Commission
(Commission). It does not necessarily represent the views of the Commission, its employees, or
the State of California. The Commission, the State of California, its employees, contractors, and
subcontractors make no warranty, express or implied, and assume no legal liability for the
information in this report; nor does any party represent that the use of this information will not
infringe upon privately owned rights. This report has not been approved or disapproved by the
Commission nor has the Commission passed upon the accuracy or adequacy of this information
in this report.
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Acknowledgements
This report was prepared by the California Institute for Energy Efficiency (CIEE) in cooperation
with the following members of the Commercial Thermal Distribution project team:
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL)- Indoor Environment Department:
Mark Modera, Principal Investigator
Tengfang Xu
Oliver Bechu
Remi Carre
Darryl Dickerhoff
William Fisk
Ellen Franconi
University of California, Berkeley (UCB)- Center for Environmental Design Research (CEDR):
Ed Arens, Principal Investigator
Tom Webster
Erik Ring
Qiang Zhang
Charlie Huizenga
Fred Baum
The Commercial Distribution Project Team wishes to thank Karl Brown (CIEE), Mazi Shirakh
(California Energy Commission), and Dennis Clough (USDOE) for their support and valuable
input throughout the course of this project. The Project Team also wishes to thank Woody Delp
(LBNL) for his valuable advice regarding the field characterization work; Oscar Ortiz and David
Montano (LBNL) for their assistance in the LBNL project on duct research. We also wish to
thank David Jump of Schiller Associates, Bud Offerman of IEESF, and Graham Carter of Ove
Arup, Cliff Federspiel and Nora Watanabe (CEDR) for their contributions to the CEDR project
on fan research.
This work was also supported by the Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
Office of Building Technology of the U.S. Department of Energy under contract no. DE-AC03-
76SF00098.
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Table of Contents
Section Page
PREFACE..................................................................................................................................................................16
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................................18
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................................................32
1.0 FIELD CHARACTERIZATION OF THERMAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS IN LARGE AND
LIGHT COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS..................................................................................................................34
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................................34
1.2 Objectives......................................................................................................................................................35
1.3 Approaches....................................................................................................................................................36
1.3.1 Physical Characterization of Duct System............................................................................................36
1.3.2 Leakage Area Measurements................................................................................................................36
1.3.3 Duct System Pressure Measurements....................................................................................................39
1.3.4 Airflow Measurements at the Registers................................................................................................39
1.3.5 Tracer Gas Measurement of Fan Flow..................................................................................................41
1.3.6 Duct Air Leakage Flow Rates...............................................................................................................42
1.3.7 Air Leakage Estimated from ELA and Pressure...................................................................................42
1.3.8 Air Leakage Estimated from Upstream Duct Flow and Register Flows...............................................42
1.3.9 Conduction Heat Gains.........................................................................................................................43
1.3.10 Equipment Performance Monitoring................................................................................................44
1.4 Results............................................................................................................................................................44
1.4.1 Physical Characteristics of Building Systems.......................................................................................44
1.4.2 Effective Leakage Areas, Air Leakage Classes, and Static Pressures...................................................51
1.4.3 Small Commercial Systems..................................................................................................................56
1.4.4 Fan flow rates........................................................................................................................................59
1.4.5 Estimated leakage ratios from ducts......................................................................................................60
1.4.6 Conduction Heat Gains and Losses.......................................................................................................63
1.4.7 Equipment performance monitoring.....................................................................................................82
1.4.8 Summary of the field characterization results.......................................................................................87
1.5 Discussion......................................................................................................................................................88
1.5.1 Air Leakage Characterization................................................................................................................88
1.5.2 Thermal Losses Through Heat Conduction...........................................................................................89
1.5.3 Energy saving potentials.......................................................................................................................90
1.6 Conclusions....................................................................................................................................................91
1.7 Recommendations..........................................................................................................................................92
2.0 EVALUATION OF DUCT PERFORMANCE IN THE NON-RESIDENTIAL PORTION OF THE
CALIFORNIA’S ENERGY EFFICIENCY STANDARDS FOR RESIDENTIAL AND NON-RESIDENTIAL
BUILDINGS (TITLE 24).........................................................................................................................................93
2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................................93
2.1.1 Background...........................................................................................................................................93
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2.2 Objective........................................................................................................................................................95
2.3 Approaches....................................................................................................................................................95
2.3.1 Heat Conduction and Air Leakage Through Ducts...............................................................................95
2.3.2 DOE-2 duct air leakage and conduction modeling................................................................................98
2.3.3 DOE-2.1E Duct Air Leakage Modeling Guidelines............................................................................103
2.4 Results..........................................................................................................................................................109
2.4.1 Light Commercial Building Analysis..................................................................................................110
2.4.2 Summary.............................................................................................................................................114
2.5 Discussion....................................................................................................................................................115
2.5.1 Issues and Implications.......................................................................................................................116
2.5.2 Prescriptive Compliance.....................................................................................................................117
2.5.3 Performance Compliance....................................................................................................................117
2.5.4 Validating Alternative Calculation Methods.......................................................................................117
2.6 Conclusions..................................................................................................................................................118
2.7 Recommendations........................................................................................................................................118
2.8 Notation.......................................................................................................................................................120
3.0 AEROSOL SEALING: LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTING OF AN AEROSOL-BASED DUCT
SEALING TECHNOLOGY FOR LARGE COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS.....................................................121
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................121
3.2 Objectives....................................................................................................................................................122
3.3 Background..................................................................................................................................................122
3.4 Approaches..................................................................................................................................................123
3.4.1 Hardware Developments.....................................................................................................................123
3.4.2 Characterization of Aerosol Injectors..................................................................................................125
3.4.3 Creating Airflow Outlets to Increase Aerosol Penetration..................................................................128
3.4.4 Modeling Particle Transport and Deposition in Duct Systems...........................................................128
3.4.5 Operating Pressure Limits of Sealant..................................................................................................129
3.4.6 Field Testing of Aerosol Duct Sealing................................................................................................132
3.5 Results..........................................................................................................................................................133
3.5.1 Laboratory Characterization of Injection Devices...............................................................................133
3.5.2 Operating Pressure Limits of Sealant..................................................................................................139
3.5.3 Modeling of Particle Penetration.........................................................................................................139
3.5.4 Field Testing in Two Large Commercial Buildings............................................................................140
3.6 Discussion....................................................................................................................................................147
3.7 Conclusions..................................................................................................................................................149
3.8 Recommendations........................................................................................................................................149
4.0 AEROSOL COATING OF IN-SITU DUCT LINER..............................................................................151
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................151
4.2 Objectives....................................................................................................................................................151
4.3 Background..................................................................................................................................................151
4.4 Approaches..................................................................................................................................................152
4.4.1 Measurement of Spot Conductance.....................................................................................................152
4.4.2 Low-Water-Content Surface Sealant...................................................................................................153
4.4.3 Pressure-Driven In-Situ Coating.........................................................................................................154
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4.4.4 Theoretical Estimate of Maximum Coating Rate................................................................................155
4.5 Results..........................................................................................................................................................157
4.5.1 Experiments........................................................................................................................................157
4.5.2 Energy-Savings Potential of Coating Process.....................................................................................182
4.5.3 Cost Effectiveness of Coating Process................................................................................................192
4.5.4 Patentability of Coating Process.........................................................................................................193
4.6 Discussion....................................................................................................................................................195
4.6.1 Conductance Reduction Achieved by Various Sealants......................................................................195
4.6.2 Efficacy of Pressure-Driven In-Situ Coating Process.........................................................................195
4.6.3 Energy Savings....................................................................................................................................197
4.6.4 Patentability of Coating Process.........................................................................................................197
4.6.5 Modification of Robot-Based Coating Services..................................................................................197
4.7 Conclusions..................................................................................................................................................197
4.8 Recommendations........................................................................................................................................198
5.0 REDUCING FAN ENERGY IN BUILT-UP AIR HANDLING SYSTEMS.........................................199
5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................199
5.2 Objectives....................................................................................................................................................200
5.3 Background..................................................................................................................................................200
5.4 Approaches..................................................................................................................................................201
5.5 Results - Protocol Development: Field Data Collection..............................................................................202
5.5.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................202
5.5.2 Data Collection Protocols....................................................................................................................206
5.5.3 Data Error Analysis.............................................................................................................................208
5.5.4 One-time Measurements.....................................................................................................................212
5.5.5 Time-Series Measurements.................................................................................................................219
5.6 Results - Protocol Development: Data Analysis Software Tools.................................................................221
5.6.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................221
5.6.2 Fan Analysis Tool...............................................................................................................................221
5.6.3 Fan Benchmarking Tool......................................................................................................................231
5.6.4 Fan Power Analysis Tool....................................................................................................................237
5.6.5 System Temperature Analysis Tool....................................................................................................243
5.6.6 Reheat Temperature Analysis Tool.....................................................................................................250
5.6.7 Static Pressure Analysis Tool..............................................................................................................257
5.6.8 Zone Temperature Analysis Tool........................................................................................................262
5.6.9 Motor Efficiency Tool.........................................................................................................................267
5.7 Results - Protocol development: Public access to protocols........................................................................269
5.7.1 Web-Site development........................................................................................................................269
5.7.2 Third party collaboration.....................................................................................................................272
5.8 Results - Low-cost monitoring: Tracer gas airflow measurement...............................................................272
5.8.1 Background.........................................................................................................................................272
5.8.2 Issues Summary..................................................................................................................................273
5.8.3 Constant Injection method..................................................................................................................273
5.8.4 Other Issues.........................................................................................................................................276
5.8.5 Global Warming Analysis...................................................................................................................277
5.8.6 Functional Requirement Recommendations........................................................................................277
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5.9 Conclusions..................................................................................................................................................279
5.10 Recommendations...................................................................................................................................279
5.10.1 Protocol development.....................................................................................................................279
5.10.2 Low-cost monitoring.......................................................................................................................280
6.0 REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................................283
7.0 APPENDICES............................................................................................................................................289
7.1 Airflow Calibration Systems........................................................................................................................289
7.2 Turbo Blaster High-Flow Calibrated Fan....................................................................................................291
7.2.1 Calibration in pressurization mode......................................................................................................293
7.2.2 Calibration in Depressurization Mode................................................................................................294
7.3 Summary of Characteristics of Large-Commercial Buildings and Systems................................................295
7.4 Delivery effectiveness..................................................................................................................................299
7.5 Bulk (Macroscopic) and Spot (Microscopic) Conductances........................................................................299
7.6 Darcy-Forschheimer’s Law.........................................................................................................................300
7.7 Fan Protocols Nomenclature........................................................................................................................301
7.7.1 Abbreviations......................................................................................................................................301
7.7.2 Parameters...........................................................................................................................................303
7.8 Problem Identification Summary.................................................................................................................305
7.9 Data-Collection Support Tools....................................................................................................................307
7.9.1 Field-Data Collection Sheets...............................................................................................................307
7.9.2 Instrumentation and Measurements Summary....................................................................................309

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