DOE STD 1224, Hazard and Accident Analysis

412 Pages·2017·5.98 MB·English

by  Technical Standards Program

DOE-HDBK-1224-2018
August 2018

DOE HANDBOOK
HAZARD AND ACCIDENT ANALYSIS HANDBOOK
Interim Use

U.S. Department of Energy
Washington, D.C. 20585
DOE-HDBK-1224-2018
FOREWORD
This U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Handbook is approved for use by all DOE elements and their
contractors. It may be applied to upgrading existing Documented Safety Analyses (DSAs) to the
requirements of DOE-STD-3009-2014, Preparation of Nonreactor Nuclear Facility Documented Safety
Analysis, or to revising DSAs for existing facilities based on their current safe harbor methodology. The
Handbook may also be used to prepare and document hazard and accident analyses during facility design.
This Handbook is intended to assist DOE and its contractors in preparing and reviewing DSAs that are
cost-effective and consistent in quality and content. To this end, the Handbook provides information on
applicable scientific theories, analysis techniques, practical examples, and lessons learned from DOE
applications and experience.
The Handbook addresses these subjects:
• Process for preparing a safety analysis, specifically the Chapter 3 portion of the DSA,
• Major accident types, such as fires, explosions, loss of confinement, chemical reactions, and
natural phenomena events,
• Criticality accident analysis,
• Source term analysis,
• Radiological dispersion and consequence analysis, and
• Chemical dispersion and consequence analysis.

DOE Order 252.1A, Admin. Chg. 1, Technical Standards Program, states that DOE handbooks provide
“a compilation of good practices, lessons-learned, or reference information that serve as resources on
specific topics.” The guidance provided in this Handbook is not mandatory and may be used at the
discretion of DOE contractors and field offices.
This Handbook is being issued for “Interim Use” because it is the first publication of a very large and
technically complex document. While great efforts have been made to achieve completeness and
accuracy, comments and feedback are welcome from users during the initial two-year period of
availability. Beneficial comments (recommendations, additions, and deletions), as well as any pertinent
data that may be of use in improving this document, should be emailed to [email protected] or
addressed to:
Office of Nuclear Safety (AU-30)
Office of Environment, Health, Safety and Security
U.S. Department of Energy
19901 Germantown Road
Germantown, MD 20874

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DOE-HDBK-1224-2018
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This technical handbook represents a multidisciplinary product of multiple authors and contributors who
have worked in some capacity in the DOE nuclear weapons complex. In the table below, DOE
acknowledges the contributions of the many professionals who authored or reviewed various sections of
this document.
Contributor DOE or Contractor Affiliation DOE Nuclear Sites
Sam Rosenbloom DOE AU-30 Office of Nuclear Safety DOE AU-31 Program Manager
Ron Beaulieu National Security Technologies Nevada National Security Site
Sandra Brereton Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Lawrence Livermore
R.T. Brock DOE Amarillo Area Office Pantex
Kevin Carroll Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Lawrence Livermore
Roger Casteel DOE Office of Science Oak Ridge
Chris Chaves DOE AU-30 Office of Nuclear Safety DOE HQ
Doug Clark Consolidated Nuclear Security Y-12
Allan Coutts AECOM Savannah River
Doug Craig Advanced Technologies & Laboratories Savannah River
Dick Englehart DOE AU-30 Office of Nuclear Safety/PEC DOE HQ
Brad Evans Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Hanford
Terry Foppe Link Technologies/Foppe & Associates Rocky Flats, multiple DOE sites
Caroline Garzon DOE EM Chief of Nuclear Safety staff DOE HQ
Chuck Grigsby Los Alamos National Laboratory Los Alamos
Brent Gutierrez DOE Savannah River Site Savannah River
Mukesh Gupta AECOM Savannah River, other DOE sites
David Hesse Battelle Columbus Laboratories Multiple DOE sites
Jerry Hicks DOE Criticality Safety Support Group NNSA Albuquerque Service Center
Quazi Hossain Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Lawrence Livermore
Roy Hunt Consolidated Nuclear Security Y-12
Lee Hyder Savannah River Nuclear Solutions Savannah River
Kamiar Jamali DOE AU-30 Office of Nuclear Safety DOE HQ
Sharon Jasim-Hanif DOE AU-30 Office of Nuclear Safety DOE HQ
Adam Jivelekas Washington River Protection Solutions Hanford
Hans Jordan Innovative Technology Solutions Rocky Flats
Kevin Kimball Consolidated Nuclear Security Y-12 and Pantex
Craig Kullberg NNSA Los Alamos Site Office Los Alamos
Roger Lanning Bechtel National Hanford
Bob Marusich Fluor Daniel Hanford
Carl Mazzola Project Enhancement Corporation Multiple DOE sites
John McAllister AECOM Hanford and Savannah River
Patrick McClure Los Alamos National Laboratory Los Alamos
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DOE-HDBK-1224-2018
Contributor DOE or Contractor Affiliation DOE Nuclear Sites
Steven McDuffie DOE EM Chief of Nuclear Safety staff DOE HQ
Tom McLaughlin DOE Criticality Safety Support Group Supporting NNSA HQ
Jofu Mishima SAIC Multiple DOE sites
Rich Miller Sonalysts Los Alamos and other DOE sites
Jim Morman DOE Criticality Safety Support Group Argonne National Laboratory
James O’Brien DOE DOE HQ
Kevin O’Kula AECOM Savannah River
Shirley Olinger DOE Rocky Flats Project Office Rocky Flats
Ingle Paik Westinghouse Safety Management Solutions Savannah River
Jane Peel Westinghouse Safety Management Solutions Savannah River
Vern Peterson Link Technologies/AB Consulting Rocky Flats, other DOE sites
David Pinkston Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Lawrence Livermore
Marty Plys Fauske & Associates Oak Ridge and other DOE sites
Louis Restrepo Project Enhancement Corporation Multiple DOE sites
Rama Sastry DOE AU-30 Office of Nuclear Safety DOE HQ
Daniel Schmitt Hukari Technical Services Los Alamos
Jim Schornhorst Westinghouse Safety Management Solutions Savannah River
Garrett Smith DOE AU-30 Office of Nuclear Safety Director DOE HQ
Chris Steele DOE Los Alamos Site Office Los Alamos
Don Swanson Triad Safety Engineering Rocky Flats
Dave Thoman AECOM/Westinghouse Safety Management Sols. Savannah River
Ivan Trujillo NNSA Albuquerque Service Center NNSA HQ
Joe Vera Bechtel National Hanford
Doug Wenzel Lockheed Martin Idaho Technologies Idaho National Laboratory
Bob Wilson DOE Environmental Management DOE HQ
Jeff Woody Link Technologies Oak Ridge, other DOE sites
Al Wooten AECOM Savannah River
Ray Yeung AECOM Savannah River
Bruce Zimmerman Washington River Protection Solutions Hanford

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CONTENTS
ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................................................ XII
1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 PURPOSE ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 OUTLINE ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
2 HAZARD ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 ELEMENTS OF HAZARD ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................ 3
2.2 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION .................................................................................... 3
2.2.1 Hazard Data Gathering ............................................................................................................................. 4
2.2.2 Hazard Data Recording ............................................................................................................................. 4
2.2.3 Hazard Summary Development ................................................................................................................. 9
2.2.4 Exclusion of Standard Industrial Hazards and Other Hazardous Materials ........................................... 11
2.3 INITIAL HAZARD EVALUATION DEVELOPMENT .......................................................................................... 14
2.3.1 Overview .................................................................................................................................................. 14
2.3.2 Nuclear Criticality Hazard Evaluation .................................................................................................... 16
2.3.3 Chemical Hazard Evaluation ................................................................................................................... 16
2.4 HAZARD EVALUATION METHODS ................................................................................................................ 17
2.4.1 Commercial Industry Methods and DSA Hazard Evaluations ................................................................. 17
2.4.2 Method #1: What-If? ................................................................................................................................ 17
2.4.3 Method #2: Hazard and Operational Analysis ....................................................................................... 19
2.4.4 Method #3: Failure Modes and Effects Analysis .................................................................................... 23
2.4.5 Method #4: Event Trees and Fault Trees ................................................................................................ 24
2.5 INITIAL DEVELOPMENT OF A DSA HAZARD EVALUATION TABLE .............................................................. 25
2.6 LIKELIHOOD, CONSEQUENCE, AND RISK METHODS .................................................................................... 26
2.6.1 Qualitative Consequences ........................................................................................................................ 26
2.6.1.1 Receptor Consequence Levels............................................................................................................................. 26
2.6.1.2 Facility Worker Consequences ............................................................................................................................ 28
2.6.1.3 Standard Industrial Hazard Consequences to Facility Worker ............................................................................. 32
2.6.2 Qualitative Likelihood ............................................................................................................................. 33
2.6.3 Qualitative Risk ........................................................................................................................................ 35
2.7 UNMITIGATED AND MITIGATED HAZARD EVALUATIONS ............................................................................ 35
2.8 HAZARD EVALUATION PRESENTATION IN DSA .......................................................................................... 36
3 ACCIDENT ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................ 39
3.1 ACCIDENT TYPE SELECTION ....................................................................................................................... 39
3.2 ACCIDENT ANALYSIS PROCESS ................................................................................................................... 40
3.3 ANALYSIS INPUTS AND ASSUMPTIONS ........................................................................................................ 41
3.4 BEYOND DESIGN/EVALUATION BASIS ACCIDENTS ..................................................................................... 43
3.5 SOFTWARE QUALITY ASSURANCE .............................................................................................................. 46
4 EVALUATION OF EFFECTS OF MAJOR ACCIDENT TYPES ........................................................ 49
4.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 49
4.1.1 Information from Accident Analysis to Include in the DSA ..................................................................... 50
4.2 FIRE SCENARIO ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................................... 50
4.2.2 Fire Analysis ............................................................................................................................................ 52
4.2.2.1 Example Analytical Methods .............................................................................................................................. 54
4.2.2.1.1 Heat Release Rate ........................................................................................................................................ 54
4.2.2.1.2 Pool Fire Heat Release Rate ........................................................................................................................ 54
4.2.2.1.4 Flame Height ............................................................................................................................................... 56
4.2.2.1.5 Enclosure Fire Dynamics ............................................................................................................................. 57
4.2.2.1.5.1 Pre-flashover ........................................................................................................................................ 57
4.2.2.1.5.2 Flashover.............................................................................................................................................. 58
4.2.2.1.6 Solid Fuel Ignition and Radiant Heating ...................................................................................................... 59
4.2.3 Source Term Calculation for Fire Scenarios ........................................................................................... 62
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4.2.3.1 Effect on Hazardous Material.............................................................................................................................. 62
4.2.3.1.1 Determining MAR for the FIRE Event ........................................................................................................ 62
4.2.3.1.2 Determining DR and ARF/RF for the Fire Event ........................................................................................ 63
4.2.3.2 Thermal Effects ................................................................................................................................................... 64
4.2.3.3 Smoke Damage ................................................................................................................................................... 65
4.3 EXPLOSION SCENARIO ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................... 66
4.3.1 Explosion Event Types and Scenarios ...................................................................................................... 66
4.3.2 Explosions Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 71
4.3.2.1 Pressure Vessel Burst .......................................................................................................................................... 71
4.3.2.1.1 Blast Effect from Pressure Vessel Burst ...................................................................................................... 72
4.3.2.1.2 Fragmentation from Pressure Vessel Burst .................................................................................................. 80
4.3.2.1.3 Thermal Effects from Pressure Vessel Burst ............................................................................................... 87
4.3.2.2 BLEVE ............................................................................................................................................................... 87
4.3.2.2.1 Blast Effect from BLEVE ........................................................................................................................ 88
4.3.2.2.2 Fragmentation from BLEVE .................................................................................................................... 88
4.3.2.2.3 Thermal Effects from BLEVE ................................................................................................................. 88
4.3.2.3 Vapor Cloud Explosion ..................................................................................................................................... 89
4.3.2.3.1 Vapor Cloud Deflagration ........................................................................................................................... 90
4.3.2.3.2 Vapor Cloud Detonation .............................................................................................................................. 90
4.3.2.3.3 VAPOR CLOUD Deflagration AND Detonation PRACTICAL DIFFERENCES ..................................... 90
4.3.2.3.4 Blast Effect from Vapor Cloud Explosion ................................................................................................... 91
4.3.2.3.5 Fragmentation from Vapor Cloud Explosion ............................................................................................... 99
4.3.2.3.6 Thermal Effect from Vapor Cloud Explosion .............................................................................................. 99
4.3.2.4 Flash Fire .......................................................................................................................................................... 99
4.3.3 Consequences of Explosions BEYOND RELEASES OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS ............................ 99
4.3.3.1 Damage Caused by Overpressure (Detonations and Deflagrations) .................................................................... 99
4.3.3.2 Damage Caused by Fragmentation .................................................................................................................... 101
4.3.3.3 Damage Caused by Thermal Effects to Facility workers ................................................................................... 101
4.3.3.4 Damage Caused by Thermal Effects to SSCs .................................................................................................... 104
4.3.4 Source Term Calculation for Explosion Scenarios ................................................................................ 105
4.3.4.1 Explosion MAR ................................................................................................................................................ 105
4.3.4.2 Explosion Damage Ratio (DR).......................................................................................................................... 105
4.3.4.3 Explosion ARF/RF ............................................................................................................................................ 106
4.3.4.4 Explosion Release Duration .............................................................................................................................. 106
4.3.5 Case: Source Term Calculation for Hydrogen Explosion ..................................................................... 107
4.3.5.1 GAS Explosion source term (ST) .................................................................................................................... 109
4.3.5.2 Gas deflagration Source Term (ST) ................................................................................................................ 110
4.4 SPILLS ....................................................................................................................................................... 112
4.4.1 Types of Loss of Confinement/Spills and Scenarios ............................................................................... 112
4.4.2 Analysis of Spills .................................................................................................................................... 113
4.4.2.1 Glovebox Spills ............................................................................................................................................... 114
4.4.2.2 Material Handling and Waste Container Accidents ........................................................................................ 114
4.4.2.3 Over-pressurizations ....................................................................................................................................... 115
4.4.2.3.1 Pressurized Powder Releases ..................................................................................................................... 115
4.4.2.3.2 Pressurized Liquid Releases ...................................................................................................................... 115
4.4.2.4 Aerodynamic Entrainment .............................................................................................................................. 115
4.5 ANALYSIS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS ....................................................................................................... 116
4.5.1 Organic-based Ion Exchange Resin Reaction ........................................................................................ 116
4.5.1.1 Reactions of Nitric Acid with Organic Materials ............................................................................................ 117
4.5.1.2 Composition and Reactions of Ion Exchange Resins ...................................................................................... 118
4.5.1.3 Chemical Degradation of Ion Exchange Resins .............................................................................................. 118
4.5.1.4 Radiation Effects on Ion Exchange Resins ...................................................................................................... 119
4.5.1.5 Incidents Involving Chemical Reactions of Resins ......................................................................................... 119
4.5.1.6 Discussion of Accident Conditions .................................................................................................................. 120
4.5.2 “Red Oil” Reaction................................................................................................................................ 120
4.5.2.1 Background and Prior Red Oil Incidents ......................................................................................................... 120
4.5.2.2 Discussion of Red Oil Accident Conditions .................................................................................................... 123
4.5.2.3 Approach to Preventing Red Oil Accidents ..................................................................................................... 124
4.5.2.4 Preventive Controls ......................................................................................................................................... 125
4.5.3 Organic Reaction Event ......................................................................................................................... 125
4.5.3.1 Background and Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 125
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4.5.3.2 Analytical and Test Methods ........................................................................................................................... 127
4.5.3.3 Prevention and Mitigation ............................................................................................................................... 127
4.5.4 Hydroxylamine Nitrate Reaction............................................................................................................ 127
4.5.4.1 Prevention and Mitigation ............................................................................................................................... 128
4.5.5 Chemical Reactions Accident Analysis .................................................................................................. 128
4.6 NATURAL PHENOMENA HAZARD EVENTS................................................................................................. 129
4.6.1 NPH Event Types ................................................................................................................................... 129
4.6.2 NPH Event Analysis Overview ............................................................................................................... 129
4.6.2.1 Accident Analysis for A New Nuclear Facility or Major Modification of an existing nuclear facility............. 129
4.6.2.2 Accident Analysis for Existing Nuclear Facility DSA ...................................................................................... 130
4.6.2.3 General Methodology ........................................................................................................................................ 132
4.6.3 Seismic Events ........................................................................................................................................ 133
4.6.4 Extreme Wind Events ............................................................................................................................. 134
4.6.5 Flood and Precipitation Events ............................................................................................................. 134
4.6.6 Lightning Events .................................................................................................................................... 135
4.6.7 Volcanic Eruption and Ashfall Events ................................................................................................... 138
4.6.8 Wildland Fires ....................................................................................................................................... 139
4.6.8.1 Wildland Fire Event Description and Analysis ................................................................................................. 140
4.6.8.2 Example: Wildland Fire Facility/Structure Hazard ASSESSMENT ................................................................. 142
4.7 MAN-MADE EXTERNAL EVENTS .............................................................................................................. 147
4.7.1 Aircraft Crashes ..................................................................................................................................... 148
4.7.1.1 Screening Analysis ............................................................................................................................................ 148
4.7.1.2 Aircraft Crash Damage Assessment ................................................................................................................ 151
4.7.2 Vehicle Crashes ..................................................................................................................................... 151
4.7.2.1 Vehicle Crash into Facility ............................................................................................................................... 151
4.7.2.2 Onsite Transportation Accident ........................................................................................................................ 151
4.7.3 Loss of Power to Safety-related SSCs .................................................................................................... 153
5 SOURCE TERM ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................. 154
5.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 154
5.2 RADIOLOGICAL SOURCE TERM COMPONENTS .......................................................................................... 154
5.2.1 Material at Risk ..................................................................................................................................... 157
5.2.1.1 Overview of Requirements, Guidance, and Practices for .................................................................................. 157
Identifying MAR ............................................................................................................................................................ 157
5.2.1.2 Examples for Identifying MAR ......................................................................................................................... 158
5.2.2 Determining the Damage Ratio (DR) .................................................................................................... 162
5.2.2.1 Overview of Requirements, Guidance, and Practices........................................................................................ 162
5.2.2.2 Examples .......................................................................................................................................................... 163
5.2.3 Airborne Release Fraction and Respirable Fraction ............................................................................. 168
5.2.3.1 Overview of Requirements, Guidance, and Practices for Determining ARF/RF ............................................... 168
5.2.3.2 Examples for Determining ARF/RF .................................................................................................................. 181
5.2.4 Airborne Release Rate ........................................................................................................................... 183
5.2.5 Leakpath Factor ..................................................................................................................................... 184
5.2.5.1 Filtration LPF .................................................................................................................................................... 185
5.2.5.2 LPF Modeling ................................................................................................................................................... 186
5.3 CHEMICAL RELEASE SOURCE TERMS........................................................................................................ 187
5.4 APPROPRIATENESS OF SOURCE TERMS ..................................................................................................... 190
5.4.1 Adequate Technical Basis to Depart from Default or Bounding Values ................................................ 190
6 ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION ............................................................................................................. 193
6.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 193
6.2 KEY RECEPTORS ....................................................................................................................................... 194
6.3 METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS AFFECTING DISPERSION ....................................................................... 195
6.3.1 Wind Speed, Wind Direction, and Wind Direction Standard Deviations ............................................... 196
6.3.1.1 Wind Speed ....................................................................................................................................................... 196
6.3.1.2 Wind Direction .................................................................................................................................................. 197
6.3.1.3 Wind Direction Standard Deviations................................................................................................................. 197
6.3.2 Wind Speed Profile with Height ............................................................................................................. 197
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6.3.3 Mixing Layer Height .............................................................................................................................. 198
6.3.4 Vertical Temperature Profiles ............................................................................................................... 199
6.3.5 Precipitation .......................................................................................................................................... 200
6.3.6 Temperature and Relative Humidity ...................................................................................................... 200
6.4 GAUSSIAN PLUME MODEL FOR NEUTRALLY BUOYANT PLUMES .............................................................. 200
6.4.1 Basic Gaussian Equations ..................................................................................................................... 200
6.4.2 Gaussian Plume Widths and Depths ...................................................................................................... 203
6.4.2.1 Atmospheric Stability Classes ........................................................................................................................... 204
6.4.2.2 Methods of Calculating Stability Classes .......................................................................................................... 205
6.4.2.3 Additional Stability Classification Techniques ................................................................................................ 208
6.4.2.4 Methods of Calculating Plume Width and Plume Thickness ............................................................................ 210
6.5 CHARACTERIZATION OF METEOROLOGICAL AND SITE DATA ................................................................... 216
6.5.1 Persistence ............................................................................................................................................. 218
6.5.2 Joint Frequency Distribution (JFD) ...................................................................................................... 218
6.5.3 Full Data Set Sampling .......................................................................................................................... 219
6.5.4 Treatment of Calm and Variable Winds ................................................................................................. 219
6.6 METEOROLOGICAL DATA ADEQUACY FOR SAFETY ANALYSIS ................................................................. 221
6.7 TYPICAL AND UNFAVORABLE DISPERSION CONDITIONS .......................................................................... 222
6.8 SPECIAL GAUSSIAN MODELING CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................... 224
6.8.1 Averaging-Time and Large Eddy Plume Meander ................................................................................ 224
6.8.2 Mechanical Turbulence Due to Surface Roughness............................................................................... 226
6.8.3 Aerodynamic Effects of Buildings .......................................................................................................... 229
6.8.4 Plume Modifications Through Decay, Daughter In-Growth, and Deposition Processes ...................... 232
6.8.5 Principles Governing Plume Rise and Downwash ................................................................................ 236
6.8.5.1 Momentum Plume Rise ..................................................................................................................................... 237
6.8.5.2 Buoyancy Plume Rise ....................................................................................................................................... 238
6.8.6 PLUME IMPACTION ............................................................................................................................ 239
6.9 DOE CENTRAL REGISTRY OF RADIOLOGICAL DISPERSION AND CONSEQUENCE ANALYSIS CODES.......... 240
6.9.1 MACCS2 ................................................................................................................................................ 248
6.9.2 GENII ..................................................................................................................................................... 249
6.9.3 HOTSPOT .............................................................................................................................................. 250
6.10 ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION OPTIONS IN DOE-STD-3009-2014 ............................................................... 250
6.11 ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION MODELING PROTOCOL ............................................................................. 251
6.12 NON-GAUSSIAN DISPERSION MODELING .................................................................................................. 258
6.12.1 Dispersion under Extreme Wind or Tornado Event ............................................................................... 258
6.12.2 Finite Plume External Dose Modeling ................................................................................................... 260
6.12.3 Plumes from Energetic Events ............................................................................................................... 260
6.13 CO-LOCATED WORKER DISPERSION FACTOR ............................................................................................ 263
6.13.1 Technical Report for CW χ/Q value ....................................................................................................... 263
6.13.2 Alternate χ/Q Value Justification ........................................................................................................... 263
6.13.2.1 Hand Calculations for a χ/Q Value Where the Default Value is Not Appropriate ........................................... 264
6.13.2.2 Computer Code Modeling for a χ/Q Value Where the Default Value is Not Appropriate ............................... 265
7 AQUATIC DISPERSION AND GROUNDWATER TRANSPORT .................................................... 267
7.1 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................................ 267
7.2 NRC REGULATORY GUIDANCE ON AQUATIC DISPERSION AND DOSE CALCULATION ...... 268
7.3 DOCUMENTED SAFETY ANALYSIS APPROACH .......................................................................................... 268
7.4 LIQUID EFFLUENT RELEASE KEY RECEPTORS .......................................................................................... 269
7.5 LIQUID EFFLUENT RELEASE REDISTRIBUTION MECHANISMS AND UPTAKE .............................................. 269
7.5.1 Initial Mixing ......................................................................................................................................... 269
7.5.2 Far-Field Mixing ................................................................................................................................... 269
7.5.3 Deposition And Resuspension In Sediments........................................................................................... 270
7.5.4 Uptake Mechanisms ............................................................................................................................... 271
7.6 AQUATIC DISPERSION MODELS AND COMPARISONS ................................................................................. 271
7.6.1 Classes of Aquatic Dispersion Models ................................................................................................... 271
7.6.2 Aquatic Dispersion Model Attributes and Characteristics .................................................................... 272
7.6.3 Comparison of Aquatic Dispersion Models ........................................................................................... 273
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7.6.3.1 LADTAP2 ......................................................................................................................................................... 273
7.6.3.2 STREAM2 ....................................................................................................................................................... 274
7.6.3.3 GENII 2.10.1 .................................................................................................................................................... 274
7.6.3.4 RIVER-RAD .................................................................................................................................................... 274
7.6.3.5 DISPERS.......................................................................................................................................................... 274
7.7 GROUNDWATER TRANSPORT .................................................................................................................... 275
7.7.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 275
7.7.2 Groundwater Flow and Contaminant Transport ................................................................................... 275
7.7.3 Tritium in Sediments .............................................................................................................................. 276
7.7.4 Groundwater Transport Model Considerations ..................................................................................... 276
8 RADIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCE ASSESSMENT .......................................................................... 278
8.1 FUNDAMENTALS ....................................................................................................................................... 278
8.1.1 Types of Radiation ................................................................................................................................. 279
8.1.2 Nuclear Fission ...................................................................................................................................... 280
8.1.3 Radioactivity .......................................................................................................................................... 281
8.2 EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON THE BODY ..................................................................................................... 282
8.2.1 Dose Evaluations ................................................................................................................................... 282
8.2.2 Inhalation (Plume) Dose ........................................................................................................................ 285
8.2.3 Cloudshine Dose .................................................................................................................................... 288
8.2.4 Groundshine Dose ................................................................................................................................. 288
8.2.5 Prompt (Direct) Dose ............................................................................................................................ 289
8.2.6 Plutonium Equivalent Curies ................................................................................................................. 290
8.3 HEALTH RISKS .......................................................................................................................................... 290
8.3.1 High-LET Radiation............................................................................................................................... 291
8.3.2 Low-LET Radiation ................................................................................................................................ 291
8.3.3 Acute Health Risks ................................................................................................................................. 292
9 CHEMICAL DISPERSION AND CONSEQUENCE ANALYSIS ....................................................... 293
9.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 293
9.2 CHEMICAL CONSEQUENCE ASSESSMENT FUNDAMENTALS ....................................................................... 294
9.3 CHEMICAL SCREENING CRITERIA ............................................................................................................. 295
9.4 CHEMICAL HEALTH EFFECTS ON THE HUMAN BODY ................................................................................ 297
9.4.1 Chemical Concentrations and Exposure Time ....................................................................................... 297
9.4.1.1 Chemical Exposure Time .................................................................................................................................. 297
9.4.1.2 Protective Action Criteria for Releases of a Single Chemical ........................................................................... 299
9.4.1.3 Protective Action Criteria for Releases of Multiple Chemicals ........................................................................ 300
9.4.2 Modes of Exposure and Routes of Entry of Toxic Chemicals that Result in Health Effects ................... 300
9.4.3 Toxic Chemical Acute Exposure Limits ................................................................................................. 301
9.4.3.1 EPA Acute Exposure Guideline Levels ............................................................................................................ 301
9.4.3.2 AIHA Emergency Response Planning Guidelines ............................................................................................ 302
9.4.3.3 DOE PAC/TEELs ............................................................................................................................................. 302
9.4.4 Chemical Mixture Methodology ............................................................................................................. 306
9.4.5 Chronic Health Effects of Toxic Chemicals on the Human Body: Carcinogenicity, Mutagenicity, and
Teratogenicity ................................................................................................................................................... 307
9.5 TOXIC CHEMICAL RELEASE PHENOMENOLOGY AND SUBSEQUENT ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND
DIFFUSION ............................................................................................................................................................. 308
9.5.1 Pressurized Liquids: Two-Phase Flow Toxic Chemical Release .......................................................... 308
9.5.1.1 FLASHING FRACTION AND AEROSOL FORMATION ............................................................................. 309
9.5.1.2 TWO-PHASE RELEASE OF CHLORINE FROM A PIPE ............................................................................. 312
9.5.2 Pressurized Gases: Choked Flow Toxic Chemical Release ................................................................... 314
9.5.2.2 VAPOR OUTFLOW FROM BREACH OF A PIPELINE................................................................................ 317
9.5.2.3 OUTFLOW FROM A CYLINDRICAL TANK ............................................................................................... 318
9.5.2.4 OUTFLOW FROM A SPHERICAL TANK ..................................................................................................... 320
9.5.2.5 OUTFLOW FROM PROCESS VESSELS OF OTHER VARIOUS SHAPES ................................................. 321
9.5.3 Dense Gas Toxic Chemical Release And Dispersion ............................................................................. 321
9.5.4 Non-Pressurized Liquid Release ............................................................................................................ 323
9.5.4.1 Convective Boiling............................................................................................................................................ 324
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9.5.4.2 Conductive Boiling ........................................................................................................................................... 325
9.5.4.3 Nitric Acid and Carbon Tetrachloride Pool Evaporation Rates ......................................................................... 325
9.5.4.3.2 Carbon Tetrachloride Pool Evaporation..................................................................................................... 329
9.5.5 Energetic Events: Fires, Deflagrations, Detonations, Delayed Ignition Explosions, and Bleves ......... 334
9.6 METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS AFFECTING TOXIC CHEMICAL CONSEQUENCE ANALYSIS .................... 335
9.6.1 Temperature Effects ............................................................................................................................... 336
9.6.2 Relative Humidity Effects ....................................................................................................................... 336
9.7 TOXIC CHEMICAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION MODELS .................................................. 336
9.7.1 Neutrally-Buoyant Gaussian Models ..................................................................................................... 337
9.7.1.1 ALOHA............................................................................................................................................................. 337
9.7.1.2 EPIcode ............................................................................................................................................................. 339
9.7.1.3 Chemical Dispersion Analysis with ALOHA and EPIcode .............................................................................. 340
9.7.2 Dense Gas Dispersion Models ............................................................................................................... 342
9.7.2.1 ALOHA............................................................................................................................................................. 343
9.7.2.2 DEGADIS ......................................................................................................................................................... 343
9.7.2.3 HGSYSTEM .................................................................................................................................................... 344
9.7.2.4 SLAB ................................................................................................................................................................ 344
9.7.3 Variable Trajectory Dispersion Models ................................................................................................. 345
9.7.4 Research-Grade Dispersion Models ...................................................................................................... 345
9.8 TOXIC CHEMICAL CONSEQUENCE SCOPING METHODOLOGY TO EXCEED PAC/TEEL VALUES ................ 345
9.8.1 Gas, Powder, and Solid Release Model ................................................................................................. 346
9.8.2 Liquid Evaporation Scoping Calculation Model ................................................................................... 347
9.8.3 Screening Method for Maximally-Exposed Offsite Individual (MOI) High Consequence ..................... 349
9.9 EXAMPLE TOXIC CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS ............................................................................................ 350
9.9.1 Example 1: Calculate Ammonia Gas Quantity that Exceeds PAC/TEEL-3 at the CW ......................... 351
9.9.2 Example 2: Calculate Aluminum Oxide Powder Quantity that Exceeds PAC/TEEL-3 at the CW........ 351
9.9.3 Example 3: Calculate Liquid 70% Nitric Acid Quantity that Exceeds PAC/TEEL Values at 1 Km Site
Boundary .......................................................................................................................................................... 351
9.9.4 Example 4: Calculate Liquid 55% Hydrofluoric Acid Quantity that Exceeds PAC/TEEL Values at 1 Km
Site Boundary.................................................................................................................................................... 353
10 HAZARD CONTROL SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION ......................................................... 354
10.1 HAZARD CONTROL SELECTION ................................................................................................................. 355
10.1.1 Hazard Control Selection Process ......................................................................................................... 355
10.1.1.1 Hazard and Accident Analysis Input to Control Selection .............................................................................. 355
10.1.1.2 Hazard Control Types ..................................................................................................................................... 357
10.1.1.3 Use of Risk Matrices for Control Selection ..................................................................................................... 359
10.1.2 Hazard Control Selection Considerations ............................................................................................. 361
10.2 SAFETY CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONTROLS ................................................................................................. 362
10.2.1 Safety Class Designation ....................................................................................................................... 362
10.2.2 Safety Significant Designation ............................................................................................................... 362
10.2.3 Classification of Other Hazard Controls ............................................................................................... 362
10.3 EVALUATION OF EXISTING FACILITIES WITH MITIGATED OFFSITE CONSEQUENCE ESTIMATES OVER THE
EVALUATION GUIDELINE ....................................................................................................................................... 363
APPENDIX A: HAZARD ANALYSIS TABLE DEVELOPMENT .................................................................... 18
A.1 SCENARIO DESCRIPTION ............................................................................................................................. 18
A.2 INITIATING EVENT FREQUENCY .................................................................................................................. 18
A.3 UNMITIGATED CONSEQUENCE EVALUATION .............................................................................................. 19
A.4 SAFETY FUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................................... 19
A.5 PREVENTIVE FEATURES (DESIGN AND ADMINISTRATIVE) .......................................................................... 20
A.6 METHOD OF DETECTION ............................................................................................................................. 20
A.7 MITIGATIVE FEATURES (DESIGN AND ADMINISTRATIVE) ........................................................................... 20
A.8 SSC SAFETY CONTROL SUITE AND SAFETY FUNCTIONS ............................................................................. 21
A.9 MITIGATED CONSEQUENCES ....................................................................................................................... 21
A.10 PLANNED ANALYSES, ASSUMPTIONS AND RISK/OPPORTUNITY IDENTIFICATION ....................................... 21
A.11 HAZARDS EVALUATION TABLE .................................................................................................................. 22
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