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Dialectal Variations in Mising and the Interference of Dominant Languages A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy Jugendra Pegu Reg No. 022 of2010 School of Humanities and Social Sciences Department of English and Foreign Languages Tezpur University December, 2010 Abstract This dissertation is a descriptive-comparative study of the dialects of Mising (exonym: Miri), a language of the Eastern Tani sub-group of the Tibeto-Burman (TB) language family. The 5, 87,310 Mising speakers as reported in the Indian Census (2001) constitute 17.8% of the total (3,308,570) tribal population of Assam. The eight traditionally recognized Mising dialects: Pagro, D;}/u, Ojan, Dambuk, Sa.jal), Mo.jil), Somua, and Samuguria are chiefly spoken in the districts of Dhemaji, North Lakhimpur, Sonitpur, Golaghat, Jorhat, Sivasagar, Dibrugarh, and Tinsukia in Assam. In Arunachal Pradesh, Mising is spoken by a good number of people in the districts of East-Siang and Lohit. A standardized form of Mising is yet to emerge and so the base form of the Mising data presented in this study, for comparative purposes, is from the dialect which is spoken by the largest number of Misings, i.e. Pagro. This synchronic study has two major objectives (1) to study the variations between different Mising dialects and (2) to study the changes brought about by the interference of dominant languages. The thesis has seven chapters and three appendices. The introductory chapter gives a brief background of the Misings: their origin, migration, dialects, linguistic affiliation, population and the present demographic distribution. The few existing works on Mising are also revisited in this chapter. The major findings of this dissertation are presented in Chapter II through VII. A description on the phonological and the morphological features of Mising, as it is required to meet the main objectives of the study, is given in chapter II. Syntactic features are outside the scope of this study as we do not find striking difference between Mising dialects at this level. The segmental phonology shows the phonemic inventory and the distribution of different phonemes whereas the section on suprasegmental features sheds light on the linear and metrical syllable structure, occurrence of geminate and non-geminate consonant clusters, the placement of stress, and the vexing question ii of the presence or absence of tone. Mising morphology is discussed under two headings: inflectional and derivational. Number and case (often referred to as morpho syntactic categories), definiteness, demonstratives, and gender are focused under the dimensions of nominal inflections while Tense, Aspect, and Mood are studied under verbal inflections. Adjectives are inflected for comparative and superlative degree with the suffixesja and pak respectively. As regards the derivational morphology, it focuses on nominalization, verbalization, and adverbialization. This chapter also seeks to expound the word-formation processes in Mising. The most common processes are prejixation, compounding, and reduplication. Chapter III focuses on the various phonological variations in Mising dialects. We find variations at three levels: (1) variations between geminate group (GG) and non geminate group (NGG) of Mising dialects, (2) variations within dialects of the same group, and (3) variations in individual Mising dialects brought about as a result of different geographical settings and influence from dominant language like Assamese. This chapter sheds light on certain phonological differences which highlights issues like retention, attrition and/or deletion, and convergence of the syllable codas: the lateral I and the velar nasal fj, replacements of consonants (for instance: the tap r ~ lateral/), and the substitutability and/or free variation of different vowels (excluding the mid front vowel e and the central low vowel a which are stable). Variations in loanword phonology are also dealt with systematically. Chapter IV sheds light on the morphological variations that exist between Mising dialects. We notice variations on two kinds: (1) inflectional suffixes and (2) derivational suffixes. We also observe some differences in morphological processes like prejixation, reduplication, nominalization, and verbalization. Chapter V sheds light on the various morphophonemic variations. The attachment of the marker to a subject NP or to a sentence-final nominal/adjective -:J brings about morphosyntactic variations in Mising dialects. On the ground of this variation Mising dialects can be divided into two major groups: geminate group (GG) iii and non-geminate group (NGG). The marker -a in all the dialects has two different syntactic functions: (1) as a copula when suffixed to sentence-final nominal or adjective. (2) as a generic or definite non-specific marker when suffixed to a subject NP. The attachment of -a to GG root words exhibit morphophonemic variations whereas the suffixation of -a to NGG root word triggers no morphophonemic changes, regardless of syllable structure or the nature of the word-final vowel. In GG, words ending in consonants and long vowels i: and e: (i.e., words with final heavy syllables) are not affected either, whereas various morpho-phonemic changes occur in words ending with a short final vowel (i.e., words with light final syllables): suffixation of to words -:J ending in short high polar vowels, central vowels, and mid polar vowels variously trigger vowel coalescence, vowel deletion, and word-medial gemination. Chapter VI focuses on the variations in different lexical categories like noun, verb, adjective, and adverb which are again due to different geographical settings, proximity to other Tani languages (especially Mipol) and Padam Adis), and influence from other dominant languages. Chapter VII expounds the influence of Assamese on Mising dialects. The Misings are in close contact with the Assamese speaking people ever since their migration from the hilly tracts of Arunachal Pradesh to the foot-plains of Assam. When languages interact closely it is natural for them to influence each other, but for most of the time it is the non-dominant language which really gets affected. Mising, being a non-dominant language of Assam, is influenced by Assamese to a great extent. We notice Assamese influence at the phonological and morphological levels. Samuguria exhibits influence at the syntactic level too. Assamese influence on Mising dialects largely vary depending on their degree of exposure to Assamese. We also observe influence of Adi languages (Mipol) and Padam) on some Mising dialects. The influence is mostly observed between dialects that live in the abutting areas bordering Assam and Arunachal Pradesh (for instance, Pagro Mising and the Mipol) Adis. Otherwise, dialects like Mo.jiI) Mising and Sa.jaI] Mising are closer to the Adis for being cognate dialects. iv The findings of the study suggest the division of Mising dialects into two major groups: geminate group (GG) and non-geminate group (NGG). The dialects which are placed in the GG are: Pagro, Dilu, Ojan, and Dambuk, whereas Sa.jalJ and Mo.jilJ fall in the NGG. The Somua and Samuguria dialects cannot be placed in any of the mentioned groups. Linguistically and culturally, Somua is in a transitional stage in adopting the Adis (mipo1J and pada m) of Arunachal Pradesh while Samuguria has almost merged with Assamese. Mising dialects are mutually intelligible, albeit variations at the phonological and morphological levels. Striking differences are also observed at the morphophonemic and morpho-syntactic levels. Because of heavy influence of Assamese, borrowed words are pouring into Mising vocabulary at a prodigious rate, either freely or with some phonological/morphological adaptations. Today, we find frequent Mising-Assamese code-mixinglcode-switching situations in the daily discourse of the speakers of Mising dialects. v Declaration This work is the first ever comparative study of the dialects of Mising, a Tibeto Burman language of the Tani group spoken in Upper Assam and in some abutting areas of Arunachal Pradesh, North-East India. This synchronic study is based on primary data collected from intensive fieldwork conducted by the researcher in different Mising villages and towns in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Secondary data (restricted to phonology alone) are sourced from the few existing works on Mising phonology. This work also deals with the present status and/or situation of Mising taking into account the close language contact situation with the dominant regional language, Assamese. The data sourced from other person's work has been used with due acknowledgement. This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma to any other institution. JU~ vi Tezpur University This is to certify that the thesis entitled Dialectal Variations in Mising and the Interference of Dominant Languages submitted to Tezpur University in the Department of English and Foreign Languages in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics is a record of research work carried out by Mr. Jugendra Pegu under my personal supervision and guidance. All help received by him from various sources have been duly acknowledged. No part of this thesis has been reproduced elsewhere for award of any degree. Date: Supervisor: Place: Professor, School of Humanities and Social Sciences Department of English and Foreign Languages vii Tezpur University This is to certify that the thesis entitled Dialectal Variations in Mising and the Interference of Dominant Languages submitted by Mr. Jugendra Pegu to Tezpur University in the Department of English and Foreign Languages under the School of Humanities and Social Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics has been examined by us on ................. and found to be satisfactory. The Committee recommends for the award of the degree of Doctor of philosophy. Principal Supervisor External examiner Date: viii Contents Abstract................................................................................................................. 11 Declaration............................................................................................................ VI Acknowledgements....... ........... .............. ..... ... ..... ..... ....... ............ ..... ... .................. x Table of contents................ ......... ..................................... ....... ........ ................... ... X11 List of maps, figures, and tables......... .......... ...................... ................... ........ .... ... XVI Abbreviations used in this work............................................................................ XVlll 1. Introduction: The Misings of the Brahmaputra Valley..................................... 1 2. Phonological, morphological, and morphophonemic features of Mising......... 35 3. Phonological variations..................................................................................... 93 4. Morphological variations.................................................................................. 122 5. Morphophonemic variations..................................................................... 141 6. Lexical Variation...................................................................... 160 7. Language contact and interference of dominant languages.............................. 171 Appendix A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 214 Appendix B......... ................ ......... ..... ............... ..... ......... ....... ........ ........................ 248 Appendix C.................... ........ ....... ......... ... ..... .......... ..... ....... ................................. 249 References.. ....... ............... .............. .................... ..... .............. ..... ..... ..... .............. ... 250 ix Acknowledgements This work is the result of the significant contributions bestowed on me by numerous well wishers during the tenure of my research. First of all, I thank my supervisor, Prof. Madhumita Barbora, for her efforts in guiding me throughout. During the five years of my doctoral programme, she has always been an inexhaustible source of support and inspiration for me to work on a language which represents a community's identity and culture. Without her valuable suggestions, this work would not have been possible. I also express my gratitude to the members of my doctoral committee, Prof. M. M. Sarma, Prof. B. K. Danta, and Prof. P. K. Das for their suggestions, and advice in general. A special thanks .to Prof. M. M. Sarma for making himself available to read some parts of my thesis which lead to fruitful discussions. My thanks are due to Dr. G. K. Borah who helped me to gain insights on certain issues on semantics in the course of my study. I am grateful to Prof. S. K. Dutta, the Dean of Humanities, Tezpur University, for helping me cross-check the Assamese data presented in my thesis. lowe my sincerest thanks to Prof. S. Morey (Asst. Director, RCLT, Australia), Prof. S. Delancy (Dept. of Linguistics, University of Oregon, U.S.A), and Dr. M. Post (Post-Doctoral fellow, James Cook University, Australia). As eminent linguists they were always genial, encouraging, suggestive, and helpful. I want to express my love and regards to my family members. My brother, Uttam Pegu, deserves a special mention for his endless support and encouragement. I also thank my friends Dr. Asen Walling, Lucky Dey, and the entire team of researchers engaged in North-East Language Development Project (CIIL, Mysore) for their encouragement. I also thank Prof. T. Taid (Retired Prof, Cotton College) and Dr. B. Doley (President, MAK) for their valuable suggestions relating to my work. x