Developments in Surface Contamination and Cleaning. Detection, Characterization, and Analysis of Contaminants

346 Pages·2012·9.789 MB·English

by  Rajiv Kohli And Kashmiri L. Mittal (Auth.)

Developments in
Surface Contamination
and Cleaning
Volume Four
Detection, Characterization,
and Analysis of Contaminants
Edited by
Rajiv Kohli and K.L. Mittal
AMSTERDAMlBOSTONlHEIDELBERGlLONDON
NEWYORKlOXFORDlPARISlSANDIEGO
SANFRANCISCOlSINGAPORElSYDNEYlTOKYO
WilliamAndrewisanimprintofElsevier
Developments in Surface Contamination and Cleaning Series
Series editors: Rajiv Kohli andK.L. Mittal
Volume 1: Fundamentals andApplied ISBN: 978-0-8155-1555-5
Aspects(2008)
Volume 2: Particle Deposition,Control ISBN: 978-1-4377-7830-4
and Removal (2010)
Volume 3: Methods for Removal of Particle ISBN: 978-1-4377-7885-4
Contaminants (2011)
Volume 4: Detection, Characterization, ISBN: 978-1-4377-7883-0
and AnalysisofContaminants(2011)
Volume 5: Methods for Removal of ISBN: 978-1-4377-7881-6
Non-Particulate Contaminants (2012)
Volume6:Sources,Generation,andBehavior ISBN: 978-1-4377-7879-3
of Contaminants(2012)
WilliamAndrewisanimprintofElsevier
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Firstedition2012
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Preface
ThepurposeofthisbookseriesonDevelopmentsinSurfaceContaminationand
Cleaningistoprovideacontinuousstate-of-the-artcriticallookatthecurrent
knowledge of the behavior of both film-type and particulate surface contami-
nants. The first 3 volumes, published in 2008, 2010, and 2011, respectively,
covered various topics dealing with the fundamental nature of contaminants,
their measurement and characterization, and different techniques for their
removal. The present bookis the fourthvolumein the series.
The individual contributions in the present book provide state-of-the-art
reviews by subject matter experts on characterization of contaminants on
surfaces.
The focus of Roger Welker’s first chapter is on sampling of particles for
subsequent size analysis and identification of contamination. Contamination in
particle form can originate from the facility, from tooling and work surfaces,
from the piece parts, from indirect materials and packaging, and from people.
Thesecategoriesarediscussedatlengthtoprovideabetterunderstandingofthe
complexity of contamination sources that must be considered in a particle
contamination controlprogram.Particles can besampled fromair, compressed
gases,liquidsandsurfaces.Thesourcesofpossibleerrorsineachcasearedis-
cussed.Thesamplingprocessesareillustratedbytheapplicationincleanrooms
withsomesimpleexamplesoftechniquesforcorrectingairflowproblems.
Computational fluid dynamics is increasingly employed for analyzing
aerosoltransportanddepositioninvariousapplications.Afteranoutlineofthe
fundamentalsofcomputationalmodelingofairflowfields,particularlyairflow
turbulence, Goodarz Ahmadi describes the hydrodynamic forces on small
particles suspended in air, including drag and lift, and the importance of
Cunningham slip correction, as well as Brownian motion for nano-size parti-
cles, using the Lagrangian particle trajectory analysis procedure. The appli-
cation of the computational modeling to aerosol transport and deposition in
human airway passages ispresented.
Therearemanydirectandindirectmethodsformeasuringandmonitoring
thecleanlinessofsurfacesforvariousapplications.Thesemethodsrangefrom
direct visual examination of the surface of interest to extracting the contami-
nantsfromthesurfaceforofflineanalysisbyoneormoreanalyticaltechniques.
Inhisfirstcontribution,RajivKohlidiscussesrecentdevelopmentsinthemore
commonsurfacecleanlinessassessmentmethods.Withthecurrentcapabilities
of these cleanliness assessment methods, it is possible to characterize surface
cleanliness from the macroscale to the nanoscale for the major types of
vii
viii Preface
contaminants, namely, particles, thin films or molecular contamination, ionic
contamination, and biological contaminants.
In his second chapter, Roger Welker discusses size analysis and identifi-
cation ofparticles based ontheconceptofequivalentsphericaldiameters and
the sampling considerations in his previous chapter. Particle identification is
directedtowardcharacterizationoftheatomicand/ormolecularcompositionof
the individual particles. This is often important to applications such as
contamination control in a cleanroom or industrial quality control or failure
analysis. Another method to identify particles is via bulk material analysis,
where the entire sample is analyzed for atomic or molecular identification. A
representativesetofthelargenumberofanalysismethodsisdiscussedwiththe
hopethatthiswillleadtheinterestedreaderintoamoreindepthexplorationof
candidatechemical analysismethods.
Rajiv Kohli, in his second contribution, describes recent developments in
a variety of techniques for imaging and analysis of submicrometer and sub-
nanometer size particles and surface features. For example, aberration-free
imaging with sub-Angstrom resolution can be routinely achieved in high-
resolution transmission electron microscopy. Other developments include
combiningtechniquessuchastransmissionelectronmicroscopywithscanning
probe microscopy and other chemically-sensitive sensors, in-situ wet trans-
mission electron microscopy, electron and X-ray tomography, neutron holog-
raphy, four-dimensional ultrafast microscopy and spectroscopy, nanometer
resolutionscanningthermalmicroscopy,andhigh-resolutionX-raymicroscopy
ofnon-crystallinestructures.Thesedevelopmentshavenowmadeitpossibleto
image particlesand surface featuresdownto0.1nm size.
In recent years atomic force microscopy (AFM) has emerged as a signifi-
cant experimental technique. Unlike other forms of microscopy, AFM is
capable of acquiring information beyond a simple topographical or morpho-
logical assessment of a surface. In their chapter, Frank Etzler and Jaroslaw
Drelich review the types of measurements on particles possible with AFM.
Particle adhesion and particle surface chemistry are important to the perfor-
manceandmanufactureofawidevarietyofproductsincludingelectronicand
pharmaceutical products. Specifically, the use of AFM for the assessment of
particlesize,particlemechanicalpropertiesandparticlesurfacecontamination
isaddressed.AFMisuniqueinitsabilitytoaddressthemechanicalproperties
of small particles. Overall, AFM provides a useful tool for investigating the
nature of surfaces and their interactions with particles and for investigating
particle-particleinteractions.
Thecontributionsinthisbookprovideavaluablesourceofinformationonthe
currentstatusandrecentdevelopmentsintherespectivetopicsoncharacteriza-
tionofsurfacecontaminants.Thebookwillbeofvaluetogovernment,academic,
and industry personnel involved in research and development, manufacturing,
processandqualitycontrol,andprocurementspecificationsinmicroelectronics,
aerospace,optics,xerography,joining(adhesivebonding)andotherindustries.
Preface ix
Wewouldliketoexpressourheartfeltthankstoalltheauthorsinthisbook
for their contributions, enthusiasm and cooperation. Our sincere appreciation
goestoMatthewDeans,ourpublisher,whohasstronglysupportedpublication
of this book and the future volumes in this series. Melissa Read and Debbie
Clark have been instrumental in seeing the book to publication. Rajiv Kohli
wouldalsoliketothankJodyMantellforhertirelesseffortsinlocatingobscure
and difficult-to-accessreference materials.
Color versions of images presented in the book are also available on the
companionwebsite:http://www.elsevierdirect.com/companions/9781437778830.
Rajiv Kohli
Houston,Texas
Kash Mittal
HopewellJunction,NewYork
About the Editors
Dr. Rajiv Kohli is a leading expert with The Aerospace Corporation in
contaminantparticlebehavior,surfacecleaning,andcontaminationcontrol.At
the NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, he provides technical
support for contamination control related to ground-based and manned
spaceflighthardwarefortheSpaceShuttleandtheInternationalSpaceStation,
as well as for unmanned spacecraft. Dr. Kohli was involved in developing
solvent-basedcleaningapplicationsforuseinthenuclearindustryandhealso
developed an innovativemicroabrasivesystem for awidevariety of precision
cleaning and micro-processing applications in the commercial industry. He is
the principal editor of the new book series ‘Developments in Surface
Contamination and Cleaning’; the first three volumes in the series were pub-
lishedin2008,2010and2011,respectively,andthepresentbookisthefourth
volume in the series. Previously, Dr. Kohli co-authored the book Commercial
UtilizationofSpace: AnInternationalComparison ofFrameworkConditions,
and he has published more than 200 technical papers, articles, and reports on
precision cleaning, advanced materials, chemical thermodynamics, environ-
mental degradation of materials, and technical and economic assessment of
emergingtechnologies.Dr.Kohliwasrecentlyrecognizedforhiscontributions
toNASA’sSpaceShuttleReturntoFlighteffortwiththePublicServiceMedal,
one ofthe agency’s highest awards.
xi
xii AbouttheEditors
Dr.KashmiriLal‘Kash’MittalwasassociatedwithIBMfrom1972to1994.
Currently, he isteaching and consultingin the areas of surface contamination
andcleaningandinadhesionscienceandtechnology.HeistheEditor-in-Chief
of the Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology and is the editor of 100
published books, many of them dealing with surface contamination and
cleaning.Dr.Mittalwasrecognizedforhiscontributionsandaccomplishments
by the worldwide adhesion community which organized in his honor on his
50th birthday the 1st International Congress on Adhesion Science and
TechnologyinAmsterdamin1995.TheKashMittalAwardwasinauguratedin
his honor for his extensive efforts and significant contributions in the field of
colloid and interface chemistry. Among his numerous awards, Dr. Mittal was
awarded the title of doctor honoris causa by the Maria Curie-Sklodowska
UniversityinLublin,Poland,in2003.Morerecently,hewashonoredinBoston
bytheinternationaladhesioncommunityontheoccasionofpublicationofhis
100th edited book.
Contributors
,
Goodarz Ahmadi Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering,
Clarkson University,Potsdam,NY13699-5725, USA
,
Jaroslaw Drelich Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Michigan
TechnologicalUniversity, 1400TownsendDr,Houghton, MI49931, USA
,
Frank M. Etzler School of Pharmacy, Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine,
Erie, PA16509, USA
,
Rajiv Kohli The Aerospace Corporation, 2525 Bay Area Blvd, Suite 600, Houston,
TX 77058, USA
,
Roger W. Welker RW Welker Associates, 19060 Brasilia Drive, Northridge,
CA 91326, USA
xiii
Chapter 1
Basics and Sampling
of Particles for Size Analysis
and Identification
Roger W. Welker
R.W.WelkerAssociates,19060BrasiliaDrive,Northridge,CA91326,USA
Chapter Outline
1. Introductionandbasics 2 2.2. Sampling 19
1.1. PotentialSources 3 2.2.1. AirborneParticle
1.2. ClassificationofAnalysis Sampling 19
Methods 6 2.2.2. Aerosol
1.3. ParticleInventories 7 Properties 22
1.4. WhyParticles? 8 2.2.3. Isokinetic
1.5. WhoistheAudience? 10 Sampling 24
1.6. Applicability(Small 2.2.4. Nonisokinetic
Volumevs.HighVolume)11 Sampling 26
1.7. Contamination 2.2.5. CriticalandBusy
MeasurementStrategies Sampling 27
(Grossvs.Precision 2.3. Samplingfrom
MeasurementStrategies) 11 CompressedGas
1.8. Directvs.Indirect Sources 28
Measurements 12 2.4. SamplingSurfaces 29
2. Sampling 12 2.4.1. TapeLift 29
2.1. WhatHoldsParticlesto 2.4.2. WitnessPlates 29
Surfaces? 12 2.4.3. Agitationand
2.1.1. vanderWaals Undulation 30
attraction 12 2.4.4. Ultrasonic
2.1.2. Electrostatic Extraction 31
Attraction 14 2.4.5. SprayExtraction 32
2.1.3. Capillary 2.5. SamplingLiquids 34
Attraction 17 3. Solventsandsolubility
2.1.4. ChemicalBonding 18 parameters 35
DevelopmentsinSurfaceContaminationandCleaning,vol4.DOI:10.1016/B978-1-4377-7883-0.00001-8
EditedbyRajivKohli&K.L.Mittal.Copyright(cid:1)2012ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 1