Development Through Life: A Psychosocial Approach

768 Pages·2011·1.13 MB·English

by  Barbara M. Newman

1
The Development
C H A P T E R
Through
Life Perspective
■ Assumptions of the Text ■ The Life Span
Life Expectancy
■ A Psychosocial Approach: The Interaction of Projections of Life Expectancy
the Biological, Psychological, and Societal Factors That Contribute to Longevity
Systems Personal Assumptions about One’s Life Expectancy
The Biological System
■ Chapter Summary
The Psychological System
The Societal System
■ Key Terms
Overview of the Psychosocial Approach
CASE STUDY: ROSE ■ Further Refl ection
Meaning Making
3
4 | CHAPTER 1 The Development Through Life Perspective
Chapter Objectives
1. To introduce the basic assumptions that guide the 3. To note historical changes in life expectancy and
orientation of the text. examine the implications of these changes for the
study of development over the life span.
2. To introduce the psychosocial approach to the study
of development, including the interrelationship
among the biological, psychological, and societal
systems.
PATRICK JONATHAN CARMICHAEL was born the son He was 101 years old but had been with them for only
of a free man who had earned his way out of slavery in the past few years. After retiring from his career in edu-
North Carolina before moving to Alabama and the Rump cation in 1958, he lived alone on his farm until he broke
plantation. Carmichael attended Snowhill Institute, which his hip after going out to feed his cattle; he was 97 at the
was modeled after Booker T. Washington’s Tuskegee In- time.
stitute. It was here that the dream for his own school be-
“I didn’t get along with my father when I was
gan. After graduating from high school, he taught for fi ve
younger,” says his son. “He was such a hard-working,
years, then founded Purdue Hill Industrial High.
disciplined man. Now it’s different. It’s like we’re get-
“The state put up just seventy-fi ve dollars a year for ting another chance. I have to take care of him, do
expenses,” Carmichael says. “Students paid tuition of things for him like shave him. He needs me and we’re
twenty-fi ve cents a year and paid in chickens or cans of developing more of a buddy relationship.” (Heynen,
syrup if they didn’t have the money. You couldn’t get a 1990, p. 9. Patrick Jonathan Carmichael, born 1886,
dime out of a state to build a Negro school back then. interviewed in 1987.)
I’d write letters to people all over the country who
Think for a moment about Patrick Jonathan Carmichael:
I thought had a little charity about them to help us.
his hopes, determination, sacrifi ces, family, accomplish-
I’d be the last man to put his light out because I’d be
ments, and disappointments; the new challenges he
writing letters.”
must have faced as he retired from education, lived
“He got twenty-fi ve dollars a month,” Carmichael’s
alone, and formed new, interdependent relationships
son adds. “He fed us kids by farming, getting up
with his son and daughter-in-law. Think of living 100
before dawn to work the fi elds, raise chickens and
years—so many changes and so much to learn; so many
cattle and pigs. He had a big garden. All his earnings
losses and so many victories. What do we know of de-
went back into the school. At night he’d write those
velopment through life? How can we conceptualize the
letters to wealthy people in Boston or New York,
dynamic development of individuals within the contexts
trying to get a little money for the school. He was
of their societies, the period of history in which they
persistent. A little at a time. People in the area built
grew up and entered adulthood, their families, their val-
the school. It started out as a one-room school
ues and goals, and the obstacles they faced? How can
with one teacher and eleven students and grew to
we study patterns of change and growth in populations
a twelve-room school with two hundred and fi fty
and still preserve an understanding of the intriguing
students and ten teachers.”
uniqueness of individual lives? These are some of the
When this interview was conducted, Patrick Jonathan challenging questions facing the discipline of human
Carmichael was living with his son and daughter-in-law. development. ■
T
he study of human development is puzzling. Our to develop from one period of life to the next. This process
goal is to gain a more accurate understanding of how is as individual as each person’s life story and is infl uenced
individuals make sense of their experiences, adapt by such factors as gender, ethnicity, cultural identity, health,
to their environments, cope with challenges, and continue socioeconomic status, education, sexual orientation, physical
Assumptions of the Text | 5
Growth occurs at every stage of
life. Within a large family, we have
opportunities to observe family
resemblances and individual differ-
ences; patterns of continuity from
year to year as well as evidence of
maturation and change.
Ariel Skelley/Corbis
©
abilities and disabilities, and historical and social contexts. unfolds. The concept of life-span development implies
Even though each person’s life is unique, common patterns plasticity, a capacity for adaptive reorganization at the
of experience and meaning allow us to know and care for neurological, psychological, and behavioral levels.
one another and contribute to one another’s well-being. The 2. Individual lives show both continuity and developmental
life-span approach to human development strives to iden- change over time. An awareness of the processes that con-
tify and account for patterns of transition and transforma- tribute to both continuity and change is central to an
tion from one period of life to another while recognizing understanding of human development. Continuity refers
both intergroup differences and individual variations within to stability in characteristics from one period of life to
groups (Smith & Baltes, 1999). another. It also refers to a sense of sameness over time
This chapter provides a brief introduction to three topics built on a history of memories, identity, and refl ected
that are central to the study of the life span. First, we outline self. Developmental change refers to patterns of growth
fi ve assumptions about human development that guide the and reorganization. Change may be attributed to bio-
orientation of the text. Second, we introduce the concept of logical maturation, systematic socialization, self-directed
a psychosocial approach to development. Third, we review striving, and to the interaction of these forces.
data about life expectancy to start you thinking in a con- 3. We need to understand the whole person, because we function
crete way about the course of your life and the decisions you in an integrated manner. To achieve such an understand-
make that may directly infl uence your life story. ing, we need to study the major developments in physi-
cal, social, emotional, and cognitive capacities and their
interrelationships. We also need to study actions, the
Assumptions of the Text
many forms of observable behavior. Each system serves
as a stimulus for the others, with the overall purpose of
Objective 1. To introduce the basic assumptions that
enhancing the person’s adaptive capacities.
guide the orientation of the text. 4. Behavior must be interpreted in the context of relevant set-
tings and personal relationships. Human beings are highly
skilled in adapting to their environments. The meaning
Our perspective on development through life makes the fol-
of a given behavior pattern or behavior change must be
lowing fi ve assumptions that are critical to the orientation of
interpreted in light of the signifi cant physical and social
this book:
environments in which it occurs.
1. Growth occurs at every period of life, from conception through 5. People contribute actively to their development. These con-
very old age. At each period, new capacities emerge, new tributions take many forms, including the expression
roles are undertaken, new challenges must be faced, and, of tastes and preferences, choices and goals, and one’s
as a result, a new orientation toward self and society willingness to embrace or resist cultural and societal
6 | CHAPTER 1 The Development Through Life Perspective
expectations. One of the most critical ways in which a facilitation, the person becomes increasingly able to make
person contributes to his or her development is through plans, set goals, make choices and decisions, and interpret
the creation of signifi cant social relationships, which inner feelings and thoughts (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The stories
then form a context for social support and socialization. of individual lives are a product of this interpretive capacity
Some societies offer more opportunities for choice and of the psychological system as much as they are a result of
promote a person’s ability to mold the direction of devel- the unfolding of genetically guided capacities and environ-
opment, whereas others have fewer resources, are more mental or societal resources and constraints. Depending on
restrictive, or place less value on individuality (Veen- their experiences and predispositions, some people are more
hoven, 2000). proactive in shaping the course of their development while
others are more passive. The psychosocial approach is an
attempt to sketch out the ways that a person’s worldview and
A Psychosocial Approach: sense of self in society change as a product of the interaction
of these three dynamic systems over the course of life.
The Interaction of the
Biological, Psychological, and
The Biological System
Societal Systems
The biological system includes all those processes necessary
for the physical functioning of the organism and for mental
Objective 2. To introduce the psychosocial approach activity (see Figure 1.1). The brain and spinal cord (the cen-
to the study of development, including the inter- tral nervous system) and the peripheral nervous system are
relationship among the biological, psychological, and components of the biological system through which all sen-
societal systems. sory information is received, processed, and transmitted to
guide behavior. Biological processes develop and change as a
consequence of genetically guided maturation; environmen-
Erik Erikson (1963, p. 37) wrote that human life as the indi- tal stimulation and resources, including social interactions,
vidual experiences it is produced by the interaction and mod-
ifi cation of three major systems: the biological system, the
psychological system, and the societal system. Each system
Genetic
can be examined for patterns of continuity and change over
Skeletal
the life course. Each system can be modifi ed by self-guided
Sensory
choices. The integration of the biological, psychological, Motor
and societal systems leads to a complex, biopsychosocial Respiratory
Endocrine
dynamic portrait of human thought and behavior.
Circulatory
In many developmental analyses of behavior, you may
Waste elimination
come across the terms “nature” and “nurture.” These terms Sexual–reproductive
are often used as shorthand for thinking about the roles of Digestive
Central nervous system
genetics and environments in guiding development. Typi-
cally, nature refers to genetic predispositions or potentials
and inborn or innate qualities that guide the unfolding of
capacities and traits. Nurture refers to the patterns of social-
ization and care that the person receives. The science of
development is often been presented as the study of the ways
Change
nature and nurture interact to produce a certain outcome,
factors
for example intelligence, assertiveness, or hopefulness.
In Development Through Life we take a somewhat differ-
ent approach by expanding the analysis to three interrelated
systems: the biological, the societal, and the psychological
Genetically guided Environmental Lifestyle
systems. Rather than thinking of the developing person as maturation toxins (eating,
passively shaped by forces of nature and nurture, we think sleeping,
of the person as actively engaged in the developmental pro- exercise,
drugs)
cess through the application of the psychological system.
The psychological system is the meaning-making system Environmental
that seeks out information, integrates information from resources Accidents
(nutrition, and
many sources, and evaluates experiences as positive or nega-
sunlight) diseases
tive, encouraging or threatening. Over time, and drawing
upon genetically based resources as well as environmental FIGURE 1.1 The Biological System
A Psychosocial Approach: The Interaction of the Biological, Psychological, and Societal Systems | 7
cognitive challenges, and nutrition; exposure to environ-
Motivation
mental toxins; encounters with accidents and diseases; and Emotion
lifestyle patterns of behavior. Perception
Cultures differ in their support of physical growth and Learning
Memory
health, depending on the availability of adequate nutritional
Critical thinking
resources, approaches to the treatment of illness, exposure Reasoning
to environmental toxins and hazardous conditions, and the Problem solving
availability of information about healthy lifestyle choices. Language skills
Symbolic abilities
Some components of the biological system infl uence the
Self-awareness
maturation of other components of the biological system. Reality testing
For example, when the infant’s limbs achieve a certain length Self-regulation
and muscle strength, the baby is able to reach out from a
sitting position to begin crawling—a new form of locomo-
tion. This results in new opportunities for exploration of the
environment which in turn results in new neural networks
and changes in the organization of the brain. The biological
Change
system is itself a multilevel, dynamic system in which matu-
factors
ration at one level can have profound, and sometimes unex-
pected, consequences for maturation at another level.
In the case of Patrick Jonathan Carmichael, two examples
Genetically Life experiences,
of the infl uences of the biological system on his life experi- Guided including educational Self-direction
ences are his longevity and his physical strength. He lived a Maturation settings Insight
long time in good health. His uncommon hardiness, brought
about by a combination of genes, a life of rigorous exercise, FIGURE 1.2 The Psychological System
and a healthy lifestyle, contributed to his ability to endure
the physical demands of his life and to achieve many of his of experiences and from encounters with various educational
career goals, while still supporting his family. The experi- settings which impact brain development and result in new
ence of breaking his hip at an advanced age is an example of cognitive structures and new approaches to problem solv-
how changes in the biological system can modify the social ing. Psychological processes can be enhanced by numer-
and psychological systems. Looking at Figure 1.1, can you ous life experiences including the quality of parenting one
think of other aspects of the biological system that may have receives, interactions with friends, opportunities for play of
been important in shaping Patrick Jonathan Carmichael’s life all types, travel, reading, exposure to music, art, poetry, and
story? the dramatic arts, and schooling. Finally, change can be self-
directed. A person can decide to pursue a new interest, learn
another language, or adopt a new set of ideas. People can
The Psychological System
strive to achieve new levels of self-insight, to be more aware
The psychological system includes those mental processes of their thoughts and feelings, and less defensive. There is
central to a person’s ability to make meaning of experiences evidence to suggest that self-insight is a vital component of
and take action (see Figure 1.2). Emotion, memory, percep- positive mental health (Wilson, 2009).
tion, motivation, thinking and reasoning, language, symbolic
abilities, and one’s orientation to the future are examples
The Societal System
of psychological processes. When these processes are inte-
grated, they provide the resources for processing informa- The societal system includes social roles; social support;
tion, solving problems, and navigating reality. In the case culture, including rituals, myths, and social expectations;
of Patrick Jonathan Carmichael, the influence of the psy- media; leadership styles; communication patterns; family
chological system can be appreciated when one consid- organization; ethnic and subcultural infl uences; political ide-
ers his motivation, his persistence, his academic abilities, ologies and forms of government; religions; patterns of eco-
his independence, his ingenuity, his goals, and his sense of nomic prosperity or poverty; conditions of war or peace; and
self-discipline. exposure to racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimina-
Like the biological processes, psychological processes tion, intolerance, or intergroup hostility. The societal system
develop and change over one’s life span. Change is guided encompasses those processes that foster or disrupt a person’s
in part by genetic information. The capacity for intellectual sense of social integration and social identity (see Figure 1.3).
functioning and the direction of cognitive maturation are Through laws and public policies, political and economic
genetically guided. A number of genetically transmitted dis- structures, and educational opportunities, societies infl uence
eases result in intellectual impairment and a reduced capac- the psychosocial development of individuals and alter the life
ity for learning. Change also results from the accumulation course for future generations (de St. Aubin, McAdams,
8 | CHAPTER 1 The Development Through Life Perspective
and children, loved ones, friends, and colleagues. Cell phones
Interpersonal relationships
make it possible to communicate in a variety of modes
Social roles
Rituals including text messages, voice mail, shared images, and email
Cultural myths as well as traditional telephone talk. We can hypothesize that
Social expectations
cell phones may contribute to sustaining intimate relation-
Leadership styles
ships and preserving bonds of closeness in a time when peo-
Communication patterns
Family organization ple are extremely busy trying to manage multiple roles.
Social support Historical events can also infl uence the societal system,
Political and religious
altering social roles, access to resources, economic condi-
ideologies
tions, and one’s sense of personal safety or security. For
Patterns of economic
prosperity, poverty, example, although we do not yet have a systematic analysis
war, or peace of the societal impacts of the events of September 11, 2001,
Patterns of intolerance
or the sudden economic collapse of 2008, we can hypoth-
and discrimination
esize that these events will have an enduring infl uence on
people’s sense of safety, economic security, and confi dence
in key social institutions. In response to these crises, the
government has instituted new levels of surveillance, new
restrictions, and new laws which become integrated into the
Change “way of life.” Some researchers speculate that recent experi-
factors ences of economic instability may result in revised aspira-
tions about accumulating material wealth, leading to the
adoption of a more modest standard of living, and a greater
desire to be part of a meaningful and caring social commu-
Move from Age-graded Technological nity (Novotney, 2009).
one culture expectations change In this text, the role of culture is emphasized as it con-
to another
tributes to the pattern, pace, and direction of development.
Societies differ in their worldviews, including the empha-
Entry into Historical
new roles events sis placed on collectivism or individualism, ideas about
the major sources of stress and ways to alleviate stress, and
FIGURE 1.3 The Societal System beliefs about which groups are viewed as more powerful or
more important than others. Societies differ in their empha-
sis on and belief in science, spirituality, and fatalism. They
& Kim, 2004). Societal processes may change over one’s life differ in their age-graded expectations, such as when a per-
span. The process of modernization may bring exposure to son is considered to be a child, an adult, or an elder, and
new levels of education, new technologies, encounters with how people in these age roles should be treated. They differ
more diverse groups of people, and new forms of work. in their defi nitions of morality, beauty, bravery, wealth, and
These changes are likely to result in more individualistic val- other ideals that may define individual and group aspira-
ues, new priorities about which skills are valued, and chang- tions. As you read the text, you will encounter boxes entitled
ing patterns of family life (Greenfi eld, 2009). Human Development and Diversity. These boxes provide
Technological innovations can modify the societal system. examples of how norms of development might be viewed
For example, television, cell phones, personal computers, differently in different cultures or ethnic groups. We hope
and the Internet have modified a person’s access to infor- these examples will help sensitize you to the role of culture
mation, patterns of informal interaction, and the ease with in defi ning what may be viewed as appropriate, optimal, or
which individuals and groups can collaborate. Websites such normal behavior.
as Facebook, MySpace, or LinkedIn create virtual social net- The societal system is illustrated in the case of Patrick Jon-
works where people can establish and preserve connections, athan Carmichael by the importance of Carmichael’s educa-
even when they are physically far apart, recreating the sense tional experiences at the Snowhill Institute, the discriminatory
of neighborhood and facilitating interactions among people practices that resulted in no state funding for Negro educa-
with common interests. These technologies have altered chil- tion, the involvement of other families in the community in
dren’s roles, providing them with resources that can allow encouraging education for their children, the philanthropic
them to function at new levels of autonomy and competence. donations from benefactors outside the community, and the
In many families, children teach their parents and grand- changing nature of Carmichael’s relationship with his son.
parents how to make use of the new technologies, elevating
their role within the family. The widespread distribution of The Psychosocial Impact of Poverty
cell phones reduces barriers to communication, a change that In thinking about the impact of societal factors on devel-
has an impact on patterns of communication among parents opment, we want to highlight the context of poverty as a
A Psychosocial Approach: The Interaction of the Biological, Psychological, and Societal Systems | 9
major obstacle to optimal development. (See the Applying psychological, and societal processes. Changes in one of
Theory and Research to Life box.) Racism, sexism, ageism, the three systems (biological, psychological, or societal)
homophobia, and discrimination against individuals with generally bring about changes in the others. As an exam-
physical, intellectual, and emotional disabilities are other ple, consider the emerging fi eld of social cognitive neuro-
examples. However, under conditions of poverty, individuals science. This field explores the neurological processes
have fewer options and less opportunity to escape or avoid associated with the ways we perceive social information
these other societal deterrents. Poverty has powerful and and reason about others. The fi eld draws on an evolution-
potentially pervasive effects on the biological and psycho- ary perspective that suggests that human beings are social
logical systems across the life span. animals whose survival depended on being able to com-
In 2008, an estimated 14 million U.S. children lived in fam- municate with others and to establish and preserve social
ilies with incomes at or below the poverty level, and another bonds. As a result, neural mechanisms have developed that
16 million lived in families at up to twice the poverty level. are uniquely organized to detect social messages of exclu-
More than half of these children lived in families where a par- sion and trustworthiness. In the ancient past, those humans
ent worked full time (National Center for Children in Poverty, who were able to make accurate, rapid judgments about
2009). These fi gures do not take into account the full impact of whether someone or some situation was safe or dangerous,
the recent recession, because many families that were margin- trustworthy or threatening, had a survival advantage (Chen,
ally above the poverty level are now unemployed or underem- 2009). This social cognitive advantage, fi rmly embedded in
ployed, and still others have lost their homes to foreclosures. the brain’s neural networks, has been passed along from
African-American, Hispanic, and Native-American families one generation to the next, contributing to the way modern
are overrepresented among those living in poverty, and their humans detect and assess their social environment.
experiences of poverty are likely to be long lasting. For indi- The capacities for representing self and others, for perspective
viduals in these ethnic groups, the stresses associated with the taking and empathy, and for engaging in effective social commu-
chronic conditions of poverty are linked with earlier exposure nication develop over time as the social information-processing
to health risks and higher exposure to environmental hazards. areas of the brain are stimulated in diverse and culturally guided
In and of itself, poverty does not place inevitable limits on forms of social interaction (Wood, 2003). The biological system
development. There are many instances, both famous and less recognizes and processes social stimulation. The societal system
well known, of children who grew up in poverty and achieved creates the contexts for social interactions and introduces com-
eminence (Harrington & Boardman, 2000). We need only plex patterns of values and priorities for social behavior. Further,
think of the case of Patrick Jonathan Carmichael to recognize the psychological system internalizes these values and assigns
that many children fl ourish under conditions of meager family unique meaning to social events. So, for example, researchers
resources. In fact, some people choose to live very modest mate- fi nd that in a task that requires recognition of one’s own face and
rial lives in order to achieve other important goals. However, it is the face of a familiar other, Westerners who tend to emphasize
well documented that poverty increases the risks that individu- self-related events recognize their own face more quickly, and
als face, including risks associated with malnutrition, poor qual- East Asians, who tend to emphasize social connections among
ity health care, living in poor quality and overcrowded housing, people, recognize the familiar other more quickly (Sui, Liu, &
living in a hazardous or dangerous neighborhood, and attending Han, 2009).
ineffective schools. Poverty is linked with reduced access to the Throughout life, personal relationships occupy our atten-
basic resources associated with health and survival (Yoo, Slack, tion. Some of these relationships are more important than
& Holl, 2009; Crosnoe & Huston, 2007). Exposure to these risk others, but their quality and diversity provide a basis for the
factors early and continuously throughout childhood is associ- study of one’s psychosocial development. As we progress
ated with higher incidences of health problems, greater chal- through the stages of life, most of us develop an increasing
lenges in achieving the developmental tasks of each life stage, capacity to initiate new relationships and to innovate in our
disruptions in family and work trajectories, and reduced life thoughts and actions so as to direct the course of our lives.
expectancy (Hayward, Crimmins, Miles, & Yang, 2000; Knitzer, At each period of life, people spend much of their time mas-
2007). tering a unique group of psychological tasks that provide essen-
Because of the complex and pervasive impact of poverty tial learning for social adaptation within their society. Each life
on development, we introduce it as a fundamental societal stage brings a normative crisis, which is viewed as a tension
theme. Issues related to the impact of poverty on patterns of between one’s competencies and the new demands of society.
development and family life will be addressed in more detail People strive to reduce this tension by using a variety of familiar
in subsequent chapters. coping strategies and by learning new ones. A positive resolu-
tion of each crisis provides new social abilities and a new under-
Overview of the Psychosocial standing of the self and others that enhance a person’s capacity
to adapt successfully in succeeding stages. A negative resolution
Approach
of each crisis typically results in defensiveness, rigidity, or with-
The psychosocial approach seeks to understand devel- drawal, which decreases a person’s ability for successful social
opment as a product of interactions among biological, adaptation in succeeding stages.
10 | CHAPTER 1 The Development Through Life Perspective
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE
Poverty
Conditions Leading to Poverty
Since the 1960s, fi ve factors have
contributed to an increase in the
number of families living in poverty:
(1) the decline in well-paying, blue-
collar jobs; (2) large increases in
single-mother households due to
births to unmarried women and
to divorce; (3) the erosion of the
economic safety net for poor families,
including the decline in cash transfers
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recession of 2008 which resulted in
Poverty is a powerful characteristic of the societal system. Children growing up in pov-
dramatic increases in unemployment,
erty are exposed to stressors and hazards that can severely restrict development.
homelessness, and loss of retirement
savings (Hernandez, 1993; Pavetti,
2000). Adjusted for infl ation, the
purchasing power of the minimum
wage in 2009 ($7.25 per hour) was in Houston, TX (National Center for Divorce places many women and
17% less than it was in 1968 (Economic Children in Poverty, 2009). Neither the their children into poverty. In many
Policy Institute, 2009). federal guidelines about the poverty instances, the family was already
The way the current poverty level level nor a Basic Budget approach to encountering fi nancial strain, which is
is estimated has been criticized as estimating the poverty level includes known to be one of the primary factors
fl awed for two major reasons: First, any category for savings or emergency associated with divorce. However,
the poverty level was established in funds. following divorce, an estimated
the 1960s based on an estimate of Poverty is transitory for some 27% of divorced women and their
how much an average family spends families—such as when a wage earner children fall below the poverty line
on food. At that time, families spent becomes unemployed and then fi nds (Chase-Lansdale, 1993). The level
about 1/3 of their income on food, new work—but persistent over the of poverty experienced by newly
so the poverty level was set at three life course for others. For unmarried divorced women is aggravated by
times the cost of a typical “shopping women who become mothers in the failure of many fathers to pay
basket” of consumables. Today, adolescence, poverty is often a result child support (Smock & Manning,
food is only 1/7th of an average of interrupted education, the inability 1997). Poverty for these families is
family’s expenses. Costs for rent, to work full time (usually because sometimes transitory, because many
transportation, child care, and health/ of time needed to care for their divorced women remarry or are able
medical expenses have increased children), and the low-paying jobs to fi nd adequate employment after a
much faster than the costs of food. that are available to those with limited year or two. However, in one study,
Second, the poverty level is a national educational attainment. Furthermore, 48% of respondents reported lower
standard that does not take into many of these young mothers are income even fi ve years after the
account regional variations in the cost growing up in families that are already divorce (Thabes, 1997). With increases
of living. For example, one estimate living in poverty. Eighty-fi ve percent of in women’s education and career
of basic needs found that the average children whose parents do not have a prospects, opportunities for women to
cost of basic housing and utilities for a high-school diploma live in low-income emerge from poverty after divorce are
family of four would cost $15,816 per families (National Center for Children likely to improve.
year in New York City, and $10,224 in Poverty, 2009).
A Psychosocial Approach: The Interaction of the Biological, Psychological, and Societal Systems | 11
Negative Consequences families and low-resource communities children living in low-income neighbor-
of Poverty have substantially fewer learning hoods where exposure to uncontrol-
opportunities over the summer. lable violence on the streets and near
Persistent poverty and exposure Each fall they begin school behind the school is associated with symptoms
to poverty during infancy and early their middle-income peers year of post-traumatic stress (Caughy, Net-
childhood are associated with greater after year. In addition, the inequity tles, O’Campo, & Lohrfi nk, 2006).
vulnerability and more negative in school resources and educational These risk factors have been associ-
consequences to health, cognitive opportunities across communities ated with a number of short- and
development and school achievement, is well documented. As a result, by long-term consequences for children
and mental health. the time children from low-income including depression, acting-out
Health. Exposure to poverty during families reach the ninth grade, they behaviors, diffi culty concentrating, and
the prenatal period is associated with have signifi cantly lower test scores, school problems. Living in poverty is
increased risks for having premature are less likely to be placed in college- associated with higher rates of learning
babies and babies that are small for preparatory tracks, and are more problems and diagnosable disorders
gestational age (Nepomnyaschy, likely to drop out of high school than in older children (Knitzer & Cooper,
2009). According to the National their higher socioeconomic (SES) 2006). These often lead to juvenile
Center for Children in Poverty (2009), peers (Alexander, Entwisle, & Olson, justice involvement and higher school
two consequences of poverty have 2007). When children from poor drop-out rates. Two-thirds of youth
a signifi cant impact on health. First, families attend schools where there with mental health problems have
children in low-income families are are students from a greater diversity been found to drop out of high school
likely to experience food insecurity; of economic backgrounds, the poor (Wagner, 2005).
second, they are likely to lack health students tend to be viewed as less
insurance. Children in low-income competent by the teachers and the
Critical Thinking Questions
families are more likely to be in fair wealthier students. This may create an
or poor health and lack access to added burden on their academic self- 1. What are some examples of ways
quality health care. Children in low- concept and result in lower academic that social and economic policies can
income families often lack treatment performance (Crosnoe, 2009). increase or decrease the number of
for existing physical health problems, Mental Health. Recent neuroscience families in poverty?
such as asthma, or go untreated for research has clarifi ed the signifi cance 2. What is meant by the phrase “the
infections that then become more of the quality of early life experiences. cycle of poverty”? How might the
serious and can result in long-term Earliest experiences shape the experiences of growing up in poverty
chronic conditions. For a family in establishment of neural networks, infl uence one’s adjustment as an
poverty, a visit to a doctor that costs including the way the brain processes adolescent? as an adult?
$75 is a signifi cant and possibly information and manages emotions. 3. What do you think would be the
prohibitive expense. A key ingredient of early brain most important, immediate steps
Education. Higher family income development is the quality of caregiving that a society could take to reduce
is consistently associated with higher relationships, especially the ability of the negative consequences of
academic achievement (Gershoff, 2003; caregivers to be appropriately nurturing, poverty?
Lee & Burkham, 2002). Children in low- responsive, and stimulating. 4. If you had to choose between giving
income families begin kindergarten Children from low-income families money directly to families in poverty
with a substantial disadvantage with are more likely to be exposed pre- by increasing the minimum wage or
regard to specifi c academic skills such natally to factors such as maternal investing in higher quality schools,
as counting, recognizing letters of the malnutrition, cigarette smoke, alcohol, health care insurance, and housing,
alphabet, and reading. By the time and environmental toxins that disrupt which would you do? Why?
they are in the third grade, children in neural development. Infants and young
low-income families have an average children are more likely to be exposed
vocabulary of 4,000 words compared to parental depression, other diagnos-
to a vocabulary of 12,000 words for able mental disorders, and parental
children from middle income families adversities including domestic violence
(Klein & Knitzer, 2007). Research and substance abuse that disrupt or
on seasonal fl uctuations in learning destabilize caregiving. In addition,
shows that children from low-income threats to safety are of special concern to