Detecting Environmental Radioactivity PDF
Preview Detecting Environmental Radioactivity
Graduate Texts in Physics Manuel García-León Detecting Environmental Radioactivity Graduate Texts in Physics Series Editors Kurt H. Becker, NYU Polytechnic School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, USA Jean-Marc Di Meglio, Matière et Systèmes Complexes, Bâtiment Condorcet, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France Sadri Hassani, Department of Physics, Illinois State University, Normal, IL, USA Morten Hjorth-Jensen, Department of Physics, Blindern, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Bill Munro, NTT Basic Research Laboratories, Atsugi, Japan Richard Needs, Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK William T. Rhodes, Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA Susan Scott, Australian National University, Acton, Australia H. Eugene Stanley, Center for Polymer Studies, Physics Department, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA Martin Stutzmann, Walter Schottky Institute, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany Andreas Wipf, Institute of Theoretical Physics, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany Graduate Texts in Physics publishes core learning/teaching material for graduate- and advanced-level undergraduate courses on topics of current and emerging fields within physics, both pure and applied. These textbooks serve students at the MS- or PhD-level and their instructors as comprehensive sources of prin- ciples, definitions, derivations, experiments and applications (as relevant) for their mastery and teaching, respectively. International in scope and relevance, the textbooks correspond to course syllabi sufficiently to serve as required reading. Their didactic style, comprehensiveness and coverage of fundamental material also make them suitable as introductions or references for scientists entering, or requiring timely knowledge of, a research field. Manuel García-León Detecting Environmental Radioactivity Manuel García-León Department of Atomic, Molecular and Nuclear Physics University of Seville Sevilla, Spain ISSN 1868-4513 ISSN 1868-4521 (electronic) Graduate Texts in Physics ISBN 978-3-031-09969-4 ISBN 978-3-031-09970-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09970-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover image: Olga_Kostrova This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland To María Dolores, center of my Universe. To Alicia and Ernesto, its brightest stars. Preface In this book, an account of principles and methods for the measurement of radioac- tivity in the environment is given. The approach to this subject is very specific since it is a problem of measuring low or very low levels of radioactivity. Conse- quently, traditional methods for radiation counting and spectrometry do not apply. In contrast, specific low-level radiation counting and spectrometry or mass spec- trometry techniques are needed. In the book, an academic and compact approach to these techniques is provided, together with an account of the presence of radioac- tivity in nature, including sources, distribution, levels, and dynamics. The text also includes a description of the fundamental concepts needed for a solid expla- nation of the main objective of the book. Thus, the phenomenology and laws of radioactivity as well as of the radiation interaction with matter are described. Once these bases have been established, the description of the different types of detec- tors and mass spectrometers is afforded. The measurement of radioactivity in the environment starts with sampling and follows with sample transport, storage, and preparation. All these aspects are incorporated in the text, including radiochem- istry, which plays a very important role in this problem. For that, relevant concepts about chemical separations are also introduced in the book. The measurement of low levels of radioactivity is a very specific problem in which many disciplines are involved. For that, the information is dispersed in dif- ferent books and journals in which it is treated from different point of views. The need to bridge the pertinent information in a solid and compact text book is very clear. This is the most important aim of the book, where the reader, on the basis of well-structured and scientifically based information, can find a rigorous view of the topic with strong academic support. This book intends to be a textbook for graduate or advanced undergraduate students in physics, chemistry, or engineering oriented to environmental sciences and in many other disciplines in which monitoring of the environment and its management is of interest. From another point of view, the determination of envi- ronmental radioactivity is always included in governmental protection programs because governments are required by national or international regulations to pre- serve the quality of the environment. These programs include the determination of radioactivity in the environment, which requires the techniques presented in the book. For that, this book will very likely also be of interest to the involved professionals. vii viii Preface This text is the product mainly of the long teaching experience the author has accumulated over the last 40 years but also of the generous contributions from the members of the Applied Nuclear Physics Research Group of the University of Sevilla. I am very grateful for the assistance of my group colleagues who have provided me with suggestions, data, figures, and, of course, warm support and friendship. The assistance of Alicia García-Roldán in the preparation of the figures and the constant encouragement of my family are gratefully acknowledged. Sevilla, Spain Manuel García-León Contents 1 Radioactivity: History and Phenomenology ......................... 1 1.1 Basic Description of the Atomic Nucleus. Nuclear Stability .... 1 1.1.1 Simple Nuclear Models ............................... 1 1.1.2 Atomic and Mass Numbers. Isobars, Isotopes, and Isotone Nuclei ................................... 3 1.1.3 Unstable Nuclides .................................... 4 1.2 Discovery of Radioactivity .................................... 6 1.2.1 Some Historic Data ................................... 6 1.2.2 Phenomenology of Radioactivity ...................... 7 1.3 Types of Radioactivity ........................................ 8 1.3.1 Alpha Radioactivity .................................. 8 1.3.2 Beta Radioactivity: Electrons, Positrons, and Electron Capture ................................. 10 1.3.3 Gamma Radioactivity: Electromagnetic Radiation, Conversion Electrons, and Isomers .................... 13 1.3.4 Other Radioactivity Types: Double Beta Decay, Proton and Neutron Emissions, Exotic Radioactivity, Fission ................................. 15 1.4 X-rays. Auger Electrons ....................................... 17 References .......................................................... 19 2 Radioactivity: Decay Law, Definitions, and Units ................... 21 2.1 Exponential Decay Law. Decay Constant, Half-Life and Mean-Life ................................................ 21 2.2 Radioactive Activity and Units ................................ 24 2.2.1 Exponential Law of Activity .......................... 24 2.2.2 Becquerels and Curies ................................ 24 2.3 Radioactive Series ............................................ 25 2.3.1 Bateman Equations ................................... 25 2.3.2 Transient and Secular Equilibria ...................... 27 2.4 Partial Activities. Branching Ratio and Intensity of Radiation .................................................. 29 2.5 Decay Schemes ............................................... 31 References .......................................................... 34 ix x Contents 3 Natural and Artificial Radioactivity ................................ 35 3.1 Primordial Radionuclides ..................................... 35 3.1.1 Long-Lived Radionuclides ............................ 35 3.1.2 Natural Radioactive Series ............................ 36 3.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides .................................... 40 3.2.1 Cosmic Radiation ..................................... 40 3.2.2 Production of Radionuclides by Cosmic Radiation ..... 41 3.3 Artificial Radionuclides ....................................... 43 3.3.1 Some Historic Data ................................... 43 3.3.2 Production of Radionuclides in Accelerators .......... 43 3.3.3 Production of Radionuclides in Nuclear Reactors ...... 45 References .......................................................... 50 4 Environmental Radioactivity ....................................... 51 4.1 Presence of Natural Radioactivity in the Environment .......... 51 4.1.1 Primordial Radionuclides ............................. 51 4.1.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides ........................... 60 4.1.3 NORM Materials and Non-nuclear Industries ......... 65 4.2 Sources of Artificial Radionuclides ............................ 69 4.2.1 The Start of the Nuclear Era. The Bomb Pulse ........ 69 4.2.2 Radioactive Fallout ................................... 73 4.2.3 Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing Plants ..................... 82 4.2.4 Other Nuclear Facilities and Activities: Nuclear Power Plants ......................................... 89 4.2.5 Nuclear Accidents .................................... 91 References .......................................................... 100 5 Levels and Behavior of Environmental Radioactivity ............... 105 5.1 Dynamics of Radioactivity in the Environment ................ 105 5.1.1 General Concepts of Radioecology .................... 105 5.1.2 Radionuclide Speciation in the Environment .......... 106 5.1.3 Exchange and Transport Processes. Transfer Parameters ........................................... 107 5.1.4 Mathematical Modeling ............................... 109 5.2 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in the Atmosphere ....... 113 5.2.1 Radioactivity in the Air ............................... 113 5.2.2 The Radon Problem .................................. 129 5.3 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in the Lithosphere. Radioactive Particles .......................................... 134 5.3.1 Soils ................................................. 134 5.3.2 Radioactive Particles .................................. 144 5.4 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in Fresh Waters ......... 149 5.4.1 Rivers and Sediments ................................. 149 5.4.2 Lakes and Sediments ................................. 156 5.4.3 Groundwater ......................................... 159 5.5 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in Oceans ............... 162
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