Crystal Growth: Principles and Progress

267 Pages·1987·6.392 MB·English

by  A. W. Vere (auth.)

CRYSTAL
GROWTH
Principles and Progress
UPDATES IN APPLIED PHYSICS AND
ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
Series Editor: P. J. Dobson
Philips Research Laboratories
Redhill, England
PHOTODETECTORS: An Introduction to Current Technology
P. N.J. Dennis
CRYSTAL GROWTH: Principles and Progress
A. W. Vere
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CRYSTAL
GROWTH
Principles and Progress
A. W. Vere
Royal Signals and Radar Establishment
Great Malvern, England
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
Library of Congress CataIoging in Publication data
Vere, A. W.
CrystaI growth.
(Updates in applied physics and electrica! technology)
BÎbliography: p.
Includes index.
1. CrystaIs-Growth. 1. Title. II. Series.
QD921.V44 1987 548'.5 87-7751
ISBN 978-1-4757-9899-9 ISBN 978-1-4757-9897-5 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-9897-5
© 1987 Springer Science+Business Media New York
Origina!ly published by Plenum Press, New York in 1987
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1987
Text, excluding abstracts,
© 1987 Rer Majesty's Stationery Office
AlI rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieva! system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher
To Penny, Bernard, and Tim
in appreciation of their continued encouragement
PREFACE
This book is the second in a series of scientific textbooks
designed to cover advances in selected research fields from a basic
and general viewpoint, so that only limited knowledge is required to
understand the significance of recent developments. Further
assistance for the non-specialist is provided by the summary of
abstracts in Part 2, which includes many of the major papers
published in the research field.
Crystal Growth of Semiconductor Materials has been the subject
of numerous books and reviews and the fundamental principles are now
well-established. We are concerned chiefly with the deposition of
atoms onto a suitable surface - crystal growth - and the generation
of faults in the atomic structure during growth and subsequent
cooling to room temperature - crystal defect structure. In this
book I have attempted to show that whilst the fundamentals of these
processes are relatively simple, the complexities of the
interactions involved and the individuality of different materials
systems and growth processes have ensured that experimentally
verifiable predictions from scientific principles have met with only
limited success - good crystal growth remains an art. However,
recent advances, which include the reduction of growth temperatures,
the reduction or elimination of reactant transport variables and the
use of better-controlled energy sources to promote specific
reactions, are leading to simplified growth systems. This progress,
coupled with the increasing development and application of in situ
diagnostic techniques to monitor, and perhaps ultimately control,
the crystal-growth process, is now rapidly transforming the field
from an art to a science. It is also incidentally proving the
correctness of many early theories whose experimental verification
had not previously been possible.
PREFACE
The aims of this book are, therefore, to chart the progress of
these developments and to illustrate the way in which the field is
developing, in the hope that it will provide a stimulus to thought
for those already involved in the field, but will also serve as a
general introduction to the subject for chemists, surface
scientists, high vacuum technologists and followers of many other
disciplines whose contributions are increasingly required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the generous help and support
given to me in the preparation of this book by all my colleagues in
the semiconductor materials growth divisions at RSRE. In particular,
I would like to thank Dr Don . Hurle and Dr Dennis Williams for
their editing of the text and their many useful comments and
suggestions. Nigel Chew, Colin Warwick and Graham Brown assisted in
the compilation of Chapter 3 and provided many of the illustrations
for that Chapter, whilst Brian Cockayne and Mike Astles contributed
similarly to Chapter 4. Chapter 5 was compiled with assistance from
Colin Whitehouse and Stuart Irvine.
In seeking to present as broad a picture of the subject as
possible, I have necessarily drawn upon the work and experience of
semiconductor materials scientists throughout the community. Many
have not only given permission for the reproduction of their work but
have contributed supplementary material and constructive criticism.
Their work (and the consent of their publishers for the reproduction
of the material) is acknowledged at the appropriate point in the text.
I would also like to thank the Ministry of Defence for permission to
reproduce Figs. 3.10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27, Figs. 4.8, 14,
16, and Fig. 5.13.
Finally, but by no means least, my thanks to Peggy Cox for all
her hard work on the typing and editing of the manuscript and for her
patience and perpetual cheerfulness, despite my many revisions of the
text.
A W Vere
Royal Signals and Radar Establishment
Malvern
1986
ix
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1
CHAPTER 2: TRANSPORT, NUCLEATIO~, AND GROWTH 5
2.1 Introduction • 5
2.2 Generation of Reactants 8
2.3 Transport of Reactants •• 9
2.3.1 Bulk vapour transport • • 9
2.3.2 Boundary-layer transport 11
2.4 The Growth Surface 14
2.4.1 The Kossel, Stranski, Volmer (KSV) theory • 15
2.4.2 The Burton, Cabrera, Frank (BCF) theory • 15
2.4.3 The Jackson a factor • • • • 16
2.4.4 Periodic bond chain theory 17
2.4.5 The Mllller-Krumbhaar model 20
2.5 Adsorption-Desorption 25
CHAPTER 3: DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS 29
3.1 Introduction • • 29
3.2 Growth Interface Breakdown • 34
xi