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CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING INTERNATIONAL CRYOGENICS MONOGRAPH SERIES General Editors: K.D.Timmerhaus,Chemical and Biological Engineering Department, University ofColorado,Boulder,Colorado Carlo Rizzuto,Department ofPhysics University ofGenoa,Genoa,Italy Founding Editor: K.Mendelssohn,F.R.S.(deceased) Current Volumes in this Series: APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, METALLURGY,AND PHYSICS OF TITANIUM ALLOYS • Collings,E.W Volume 1:Fundamentals Volume 2:Applications CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING:FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS • Timmerhaus,Klaus D.;and Reed,Richard P.(Eds.) CRYOGENIC REGENERATIVE HEAT EXCHANGERS•Ackermann,Robert A HEAT CAPACITY AND THERMAL EXPANSION AT LOW TEMPERATURES. •Barron,T.H.K.and White,G.K HELIUM CRYOGENICS • Van Sciver,and Steven W MODERN GAS-BASED TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS • Pavese,Franco,and Molinar,Gianfranco POLYMER PROPERTIES AT ROOM AND CRYOGENIC TEMPERATURES • Hartwig,Gunther SAFETY IN THE HANDLING OF CRYOGENIC FLUIDS • Edeskuty,Frederick J.,and Stewart,Walter F THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF CRYOGENIC FLUIDS • Jacobsen,Richard T.,Penoncello,Steven G., and Lemmon,Eric W Klaus D. Timmerhaus and Richard P. Reed (Eds.) CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING Fifty Years of Progress Klaus D.Timmerhaus Richard P.Reed Department of Chemical and Cryogenic Materials,Inc. Biological Engineering 2625 Iliff University of Colorado Boulder,CO 80305 Boulder,CO 80309 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] Library ofCongress Control Number:2006923488 ISBN-10:0-387-33324-X e-ISBN-10:0-387-46896-X ISBN-13:978-0-387-33324-3 e-ISBN-13:978-0-387-46896-9 Printed on acid-free paper. © 2007 Springer Science+Business Media,LLC All rights reserved.This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission ofthe publisher (Springer Science+Business Media,LLC,233 Spring Street,New York,NY 10013, USA),except for briefexcerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis.Use in connection with any form ofinformation storage and retrieval,electronic adaptation,computer software,or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication oftrade names,trademarks,service marks,and similar terms,even ifthey are not identified as such,is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com Preface The Cryogenic Engineering Conference (CEC) marked its 50th anniversary this pastyear.TohighlighttheoccasiontheCECBoard,inconjunctionwiththeInter- nationalCryogenicMaterialsConference(ICMC)Board,proposedthataspecial 1-day anniversary program be scheduled prior to the CEC–ICMC joint meeting inKeystone,Colorado,thatwouldreviewtheadvancesincryogenicengineering which had occurred in this distinct but relatively invisible field of engineering duringthepast50years.Accordingly,aprogramof14papers,coveringboththe interestofCECattendeesandICMCattendees,wasenvisionedtocoverthevarious aspectsofcryogenicengineering.Authorswereinvitedtopreparethesereviewpa- pers,butbecauseoftimerestrictionsthetechnicalprogramwaslimitedandnotall paperswerepresentedorally.Asaresult,theCECandICMCboardsrecommended thataseparatemonograph,inadditiontotheregularlypublishedtwovolumesof AdvancesinCryogenicEngineering,bepreparedwhichwouldincludeallofthe invitedpapers.Thismonographistheresultofthatrecommendation. Toprovideanassessmentofthestatusofcryogenicengineering50yearsago, a historical summary of cryogenic activity is presented in the first chapter. The purposeistoreviewtheeventsoccurringduringthe100-yearperiodpriorto1950 as well as to provide a better understanding of the events that took place after 1950.Withthathistoricalbackground,theadvancesinestablishingdatabasesfor cryogenicfluidsandpropertiesofmaterials,bothmetallicandnonmetallic,aredis- cussedandtheirpresentstatusevaluated.Theadvancesincryogenicfundamentals arethencovered,withreviewsofcryogenicprinciples,progressincryogenicinsu- lation,developmentoflow-lossstoragesystemsforcryogenicfluids,establishment ofmodernliquefactionprocesses,modificationsoccurringinheliumcryogenics, andimprovementsachievedincryogenicthermometry. The monograph then reviews several well-established applications resulting fromthecryogenicadvancesnotedabove.Thecryocoolersdevelopedforaerospace missionsaremanyinnumberandshowasteadyprogresstoachievelong-lifecool- ersandcryostats.Theactualapplicationofsuperconductivityisnotedintwochap- ters, one considering low-temperature superconductivity activities and the other considering high-temperature superconductivity activities. Both are contributing tomodernconceptsofpowertransmissionandstorage,high-powermagnets,and v vi Preface sophisticatedmedicalequipment.Cryopreservationoftissuesandorgansisunder- goingconsiderablechangewithabetterunderstandingoftheeffectsofcryopro- tectants.Obviously,thereareotherapplicationsthatcouldhavebeenincluded,but thevalueofthemonographwouldhavebeenlost. Thepreparationofevenamonographrequirestheassistanceofmanyindividu- als.Theeditorsthanktheauthorsfortheirinterestandtimerequiredtopreparea review,aprocessthatnormallynecessitatesconsiderableeffortinliteraturereview and evaluation. We also want to thank the many reviewers of the chapters and theconstructivecommentsthatwereprovided.Finally,wewanttorecognizethe manycontributionsmadebyCynthiaOcken,fromtheUniversityofColoradoand assistanttooneoftheeditors.Herdailyupdatingofchangesmadeinthechapters over many months and the overall control of the publication process are greatly appreciatedandadmired. KLAUSD.TIMMERHAUS RICHARDP.REED Contents AbouttheAuthors ix Part1. BackgroundInformation 1. HistoricalSummaryofCryogenicActivityPriorto1950............. 3 R.Radebaugh Part2. AdvancesinCryogenicDataDevelopmentoverthe Past50Years 2. SourcesofCryogenicDataandInformation.............................. 31 R.A.Mohling,W.L.Hufferd,andE.D.Marquardt 3. TrendsandAdvancesinCryogenicMaterials............................ 52 R.P.Reed 4. HistoryandApplicationsofNonmetallicMaterials.................... 84 G.Hartwig Part3. ImprovementinCryogenicFundamentalsoverthe Past50Years 5. AdvancesinCryogenicPrinciples........................................... 105 R.F.Barron 6. InsulationProgresssincetheMid-1950s................................... 120 K.D.Timmerhaus vii viii Contents 7. DevelopmentofLow-LossStorageofCryogenicLiquids overthePast50Years.......................................................... 134 R.G.Scurlock 8. Fifty-Years’DevelopmentofCryogenicLiquefactionProcesses..... 146 W.F.Castle 9. AdvancesinHeliumCryogenics............................................. 161 S.W.VanSciver 10. LessonsLearnedin50YearsofCryogenicThermometry............ 179 F.Pavese Part4. CryogenicApplicationsDevelopmentOverthePast50Years 11. AerospaceCoolers:A50-YearQuestforLong-Life CryogenicCoolinginSpace................................................... 225 R.G.Ross,Jr. 12. UnderstandingPropertiesandFabricationProcesses ofSuperconductingNb SnWires............................................ 285 3 M.Suenaga 13. High-TemperatureSuperconductors:AReview ofYBa2Cu3O6+x and(Bi,Pb)2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10............................. 309 H.C.FreyhardtandE.E.Hellstrom 14. AParadigmShiftinCryopreservation:Molecular-Based AdvancestoImproveOutcome............................................... 340 J.M.BaustandJ.G.Baust Index 367 About the Authors R.F. Barron is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at the Louisiana Tech University. He is the author of Cryogenic Systems (1st ed., 1965; 2nd ed., 1985;Russiantranslation,1989)andCryogenicHeatTransfer(1999).Heisapast member of the Cryogenic Engineering Conference Board and a member of the Cryogenic Society of America, where he serves on the Editorial Board of Cold Facts.HeisafellowofASME. J.G.BaustisLeadProfessorintheBiologicalSciencesandBioengineeringDe- partmentandDirectoroftheInstituteofBiomedicalTechnologyattheStateUni- versity of New York at Binghamton, New York. He has authored or coauthored hundredsofpapers,reviews,andpatentsincell-tissuecryopreservation,hypother- micorganpreservation,tissueengineering,andcancertherapy.Hehasbeenheavily involved in numerous cryobiology companies and presently serves as President andCEOofBioLifeSolutions,Inc. J.M.BaustservesasPresidentandCEOofCellPreservation,Inc.andProfessor in the Bioengineering and Biology Department at the State University of New York at Binghamton, New York. He has authored or coauthored many papers, reviews,andpatentsintheareaoflow-temperaturebiologyandhasbeenaleader inadvancingthisfieldintothemolecularbiologicalarena,focusingontheareas oftransductionandapoptosis.Heservesonseveraladvisoryandeditorialboards ofseveralbiotechcorporationsandjournals,respectively. W.F.CastleisretiredafterworkingforBOCintheUKfor48years,wherehewas ProjectandTechnicalDirectoraswellasInternationalSalesProjectDirector.He istheimmediatePastPresidentofCommissionA2oftheInternationalInstituteof Refrigeration and has presented many papers at international meetings covering topicsoncryogenicprocessdesign,selectionofairseparationplantsforspecific productdemands,andreviewofadvancesincryogenictechnology. H.C.FreyhardtisDirectoroftheZentrumfu¨rFunktionswerkstoffeinGoettingen, Germany,andamemberoftheUniversityofGoettingen’sInstitutefu¨rMaterial- physik.Mostofhisextensivepublicationsrelatetohisstudiesonsuperconductors andsemiconductors,includingalloys,composites,thinfilmoxides,andthinfilm ix