CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY Simon Parsons The aeration of clay soils in cricket School of Applied ...

392 Pages·2012·11.65 MB·English

CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY
Simon Parsons
The aeration of clay soils in cricket
School of Applied Sciences
EngD
Academic Year: 2008 – 2012
Supervisors:
Dr Iain James
Dr Mark Bartlett
May 2012
CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY
School of Applied Sciences
Engineering Doctorate
Academic Year 2008 – 2012
Simon Parsons
The aeration of clay soils in cricket
Supervisors:
Dr Iain James
Dr Mark Bartlett
May 2012
This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the degree of Engineering Doctorate
© Cranfield University 2012. All rights reserved. No part of this
publication may be reproduced without the written permission of the
copyright owner.
ABSTRACT
In the game of cricket good ball-surface interactions are essential and require a
hard, flat surface. To achieve this the clay loam soil comprising the pitch is
compressed and compacted using a smooth wheeled roller, which when
combined with the drying action of the grass plant roots, causing the clay
minerals within the soil to shrink, creates a high bulk density, hard surface on
which to play.
High bulk density soils present difficult growing conditions for plants due to high
mechanical resistance, reduced hydraulic conductivity and gas exchange
capability. The hydraulic properties and gas exchange capability are linked to
the connectivity and tortuosity of the pore network as well as pore size; all of
which are diminished by compaction of the soil. Aeration is currently utilised as
a tool to ameliorate the negative effects of compaction on the growing
environment of the plant roots. Little research exists that describes the actions
of aeration in clay loam soils. The current guidelines for aeration and the proof
for its efficacy in cricket are based almost entirely on anecdotal evidence.
A diverse methodology was used to meet the project objectives. This diversity
reflects the broad nature of the expectations of the cricket groundsmen from
aeration of pitches as reflected in a survey of current practise undertaken during
the project. Novel experimental methods were used to examine the effect of
aeration on soil atmospheres in the laboratory and under field conditions. The
laboratory experiment revealed that vertically-operated solid tines did
significantly increase the rate of diffusion through the soil, however in the field,
this rate increase was only apparent after significant rainfall. New methods
utilising time-lapse photography and automated image analysis quantified the
magnitude of swelling in a range of soils in response to increasing water content
over time to a high degree of accuracy. A similar method was employed to
examine the shrinkage of the same soils as the water content was reduced,
examining not only the magnitude but also the cracking patterns formed. These
experiments aimed to examine the soils natural ability to recover from
compaction over time.
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The soils natural ability to recover from compaction through shrink-swell and
freeze-thaw was evident in the field trials. These field trials examined five
diverse aeration treatments to examine the physical and biological effects they
have on the soil. The field trials showed generally small and inconsistent effects
on the physical properties of the soil from aeration treatments when compared
to the natural processes of shrink-swell and freeze-thaw. One consistent effect
from aeration was a 2% reduction in moisture content in one particular soil type.
Aeration was found to have no effect on soil microbial biomass nor on soil
organic matter content.
In a pot experiment examining the effect of aeration in a range of soil densities
the total root mass was not diminished by increasing soil density but became
increasingly concentrated upwards in the profile. Aeration was found to slightly
increase the root mass but only in the highest bulk density treatment
(1.90 g cm-3) at depths below 75 mm.
A set of guidelines were developed based on the evidence garnered from the
experiments with a clearly defined decision process for choosing the most
suitable equipment for the treatment aim. It is hoped that these guidelines will
provide an informative reference for current and future groundsmen to ensure
the optimum use of often scarce and valuable resources when choosing an
aeration treatment.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of the aeration in cricket pitches project and this thesis would
not have been possible without the help and support of Cranfield University
staff, fellow students, funding from ECB Places and EPSRC as well as help and
advice from those within the cricket and groundscare industry.
Dr Iain James and Dr Mark Bartlett, my supervisors, have provided excellent
support and guidance throughout the project. My thesis committee, in particular
Dr Jane Rickson, for your interest, enthusiasm, care and guidance.
Many of the experiments would not have been possible without the kind support
of Sisis Ltd, Ecosolve, and Toro for the loan of equipment and experienced
users, and Simon Headley of Boughton Loam and Turf Management for
providing ever increasing amounts of soil for the ever increasing number of
experiments.
The practical elements of the project were eased by the knowledge and help
from the technical staff of the soil laboratory. In particular Richard Andrews,
Maria Biskupska, Jan Bingham, Susan Welch, and Ceri Llewellyn. Bob Walker
for providing advice and assistance in maintaining and caring for the field sites, I
would never have been able to start the roller without you.
To all the cricket groundsman throughout the UK who shared their skill and
knowledge in the art of groundsmanship through the questionnaire returns.
Martin Ford and Chris Wood for their vital insights into cricket groundscare and
Ray Bailey for your invaluable help in the construction of the new pitches.
My fellow students, Andy Duncombe, Matt Caple, James Ulyett, Matt Upson
and Zaka Quraishi, who have advised, consoled, congratulated and aided at
various times throughout the project. My voluntary labour force Anne and John
Parsons, Ed Lyons, Gill Wald, Ben Parsons, Sarah Szyszka and Chris Parsons
whose help turned weeks of work alone to a few days of pleasant company.
Lastly my girlfriend, Bryony, for being head counsellor, able bodied assistant
and for hauling me in when you felt the tug as I reached the end of my rope.
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Generic descriptions of aeration processes and products have been used
throughout where possible. Any reference to products, brand names or
equipment types is not a recommendation of a particular manufacturer, model
or brand by the Author, Supervisors or Cranfield University. The results of
experiments in this thesis are limited to the experimental conditions that
prevailed at the time of testing. Any recommendation is made in good faith and
the Author, Supervisor and Cranfield University cannot be held responsible for
the consequences of actions taken on this advice.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS................................................................................xi
NOTATION USED............................................................................................xiii
1 Introduction......................................................................................................1
1.1 Cricket: the game and the role of the pitch...............................................2
1.2 What is the need for aeration?..................................................................4
1.3 What is aeration?......................................................................................5
1.3.1 Slit/Knife tines....................................................................................6
1.3.2 Solid/Spike tine ..................................................................................7
1.3.3 Hollow/coring tines.............................................................................9
1.3.4 Deep Drill...........................................................................................9
1.3.5 Air/Water Injection............................................................................10
1.3.6 Vertical mowing\Linear Aeration\Deep Scarifying ............................12
1.4 Autumn maintenance and current aeration guidelines in cricket.............12
1.4.1 Fraise topping and mowing..............................................................15
1.5 Aim of aeration in cricket.........................................................................17
1.6 Structure of cricket governance..............................................................18
1.7 ECB Strategy..........................................................................................19
1.8 Importance of pitches in strategy............................................................25
1.9 Aeration research as part of ECB strategy..............................................27
1.10 Thesis Structure....................................................................................30
2 Literature Review framing the creation of the aims and objectives of the
research project................................................................................................35
2.1 The grass plant and cricket pitches.........................................................35
2.2 Importance of the soil atmosphere and gas exchange ...........................39
2.3 Soil structure and the pore network........................................................44
2.4 Soil compaction ......................................................................................48
2.5 Soil microbial activity...............................................................................50
2.6 Soil amelioration.....................................................................................51
2.6.1 Soil Aeration.....................................................................................54
2.6.2 Deformation of soil...........................................................................56
2.7 Diffusion of innovation.............................................................................59
2.8 Summary of literature review..................................................................65
2.9 Aim and Objectives.................................................................................67
3 Current aeration practices.............................................................................69
3.1 Introduction.............................................................................................69
3.2 Survey design and distribution................................................................69
3.3 Results....................................................................................................70
3.3.1 Survey response and population coverage......................................70
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3.3.2 Pitch usage......................................................................................71
3.3.3 Trends in general maintenance........................................................72
3.3.4 Aeration treatment choice and usage...............................................74
3.3.5 Root breaks and layering.................................................................79
3.3.6 Attitudes to aeration.........................................................................82
3.4 Summary and discussion........................................................................84
4 Soil Shrink-Swell ...........................................................................................87
4.1 Swelling..................................................................................................88
4.1.1 Introduction......................................................................................88
4.1.2 Materials and methods.....................................................................90
4.1.3 Results.............................................................................................95
4.1.4 Discussion........................................................................................99
4.1.5 Conclusions & relevance to research.............................................106
4.2 Soil Shrinkage.......................................................................................109
4.2.1 Introduction....................................................................................109
4.2.2 Method...........................................................................................112
4.2.3 Results...........................................................................................116
4.2.4 Discussion......................................................................................125
4.2.5 Conclusions & relevance to cricket ................................................129
4.3 Shrinkage and Swelling Processes.......................................................130
5 Laboratory Scale Examination of Diffusion in Soil.......................................131
5.1 Introduction...........................................................................................131
5.1.1 Diffusion in free atmosphere..........................................................132
5.1.2 Fick’s 2nd law describes non-steady state diffusion........................133
5.1.3 Diffusion in porous media...............................................................135
5.1.4 Diffusion coefficient in a changing mixture of gases.......................136
5.2 Method..................................................................................................137
5.3 Results..................................................................................................141
5.3.1 Effect of soil water content.............................................................141
5.3.2 Diffusion of oxygen in the soil.........................................................145
5.3.3 Evolution and diffusion of carbon dioxide in the soil.......................150
5.3.4 Numerical Analysis.........................................................................151
5.4 Discussion ............................................................................................158
5.4.1 Effect of soil water..........................................................................158
5.4.2 Diffusion of oxygen in the soil.........................................................158
5.4.3 Evolution and diffusion of carbon dioxide in the soil.......................161
5.4.4 Method limitations..........................................................................162
5.5 Conclusion and relevance to cricket.....................................................163
5.6 Diffusion with Grass..............................................................................165
5.6.1 Method...........................................................................................165
5.6.2 Summary of Results.......................................................................165
5.6.3 Method limitations and suggested improvements..........................166
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6 Effect of bulk density and solid tine aeration on root growth and microbial
biomass..........................................................................................................169
6.1 Introduction...........................................................................................169
6.2 Experimental Approach.........................................................................171
6.2.1 Examination of dry leaf growth.......................................................174
6.2.2 Dry root mass, root density and microbial biomass........................174
6.3 Results & Discussion............................................................................179
6.3.1 Effect of restricted gas exchange...................................................179
6.3.2 Effect of density..............................................................................183
6.3.3 Effect of solid tine aeration.............................................................191
6.4 Discussion ............................................................................................192
6.4.1 Sealed vs. Unsealed......................................................................192
6.4.2 Density...........................................................................................193
6.4.3 Effect of solid tine aeration.............................................................196
6.4.4 Method limitations and suggestions for future work .......................198
6.5 Conclusions and relevance to cricket....................................................199
7 Field Trials of Equipment.............................................................................203
7.1 Introduction...........................................................................................203
7.1.1 Experimental Approach..................................................................203
7.1.2 Surface hardness and penetration resistance in relation to soil water
content and dry bulk density....................................................................207
7.2 Immediate effects of aeration................................................................214
7.2.1 Method...........................................................................................214
7.2.2 Results...........................................................................................215
7.2.3 Discussion......................................................................................232
7.2.4 Summary of the key points on the immediate effects of aeration...241
7.3 Long term effects of aeration................................................................243
7.3.1 Experimental Approach..................................................................243
7.3.2 Results...........................................................................................246
7.3.3 Discussion......................................................................................263
7.3.4 Summary of key points in Long Term Data....................................274
7.4 Field Trials: End point trial excavation..................................................276
7.4.1 Experimental Approach..................................................................276
7.4.2 Results & Discussion......................................................................277
7.4.3 Summary and key points................................................................286
7.5 Field Trials: Conclusions and relevance to cricket................................289
8 Effect of aeration on the soil atmosphere in the field...................................295
8.1 Introduction...........................................................................................295
8.2 Monitoring of soil atmospheres.............................................................295
8.2.1 Point sample extractions................................................................296
8.2.2 Buried sensors...............................................................................296
8.2.3 Buried gas wells.............................................................................297
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